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Hi, everybody. Welcome back.
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Today we're covering the content
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that is in Chapter 25
of your textbook,
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and this chapter largely covers
some broad patterns
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with regard to the history of life
on the planet.
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When we were together last time,
we were looking at mechanisms
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that could promote speciation,
right?
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We talked
about allopatric speciation
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and sympatric speciation.
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Today, we're going to look at,
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again, some broad-scale events
that occurred
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over the history of life
on the planet
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that include things
like mass extinctions,
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and the phenomenon
of what we call adaptive radiation
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where we see many,
many species
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show up in-- in the fossil record.
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And yeah, a lot of what we know
with regard to what
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we're going to talk about today
comes from an exploration of
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and interpretation
of that fossil record.
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Starting
with this slide right here:
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this is a amazing photo
of a skeleton of a whale
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that was discovered
in the Sahara Desert.
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So, you might be wondering,
well, how did that happen?
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Researchers were--
were knowing where to look
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when they were--
when they were trying to figure out
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what are the origins
of marine mammals, for example.
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And so, due to conversations
with geologists about,
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you know,
where we might find fossils
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of-- of particular creatures
from a particular time
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in the history of life on Earth,
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and other patterns of--
of events that--
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that led researchers to predict
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that they
might actually find whale bones
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in the--
in the desert of the Sahara.
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And, in fact, they did.
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So, that's just one example
of some of the work
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that paleontologists do.
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Paleontology is the study
of the fossil record.
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So, yeah, let's go ahead
and get started
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building on the work that--
that we have learned
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from paleontologists today.
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So, again, when we
use the word macroevolution
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now we're really talking
about broad patterns of evolution
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that--
that are above the species level.
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So, we're looking at groups
of organisms.
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And when we look in the fossil record,
we do see some trends.
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You know, we see the emergence,
for example,
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of terrestrial vertebrates.
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We see the emergence
of other groups of species as well,
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that I'm going to share
with you today.
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We also see
that mass extinctions occurred.
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And then there's been, you know,
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there's been...
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you know, that has affected
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the evolutionary trajectory
of other species.
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So, we'll talk about that today.
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And then we'll focus
on some key adaptations
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such as flight, for example.
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So, when these new adaptations
arise,
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it allows for what we
call "adaptive radiation".
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I'll talk about that today
as well.
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The possibility
for many new species
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to emerge
over a relatively short period of time,
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and I'm talking geologic time.
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So, you know, short is relative here
in this conversation today.
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But, yeah, when you
have a novel character that arises,
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such as the ability to fly,
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that promotes the possibility
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for the--
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for a species
that has that particular character
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to diverge into many other species
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as they occupy new habitats
that are available to them
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because of that character
that emerged.
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So, yeah, we'll talk about each
of these in detail today.
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All right,
if we're going to have a conversation
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about the history of life
on Earth,
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we might as well start
at the very beginning.
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So--
So, one of our big questions is
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what is the origin of life?
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How did life ever get started
on planet Earth, right?
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And so, I'm going to share
with you some evidence
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that supports the idea
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that the origin of life
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occurred
via these sequential steps
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that you see in my slide here.
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So, it makes the most sense to us,
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and the data support this idea,
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that the first thing
that probably happened
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was number one here,
abiotic synthesis.
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Abiotic meaning non-living, right?
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Abiotic synthesis
of very small organic molecules,
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probably monomers of molecules.
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And then, finally, polymers.
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The joining of those together
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to make those polymers
probably occurred.
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And then, at some point, those--
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those molecules
were probably captured inside
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what we colloquially
call, "protocells," right.
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Proto- meaning first, these--
these precursors to modern cells.
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And then lastly,
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there is evidence
to suggest the origin
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of self-replicating molecules,
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similar to what we see today,
right?
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Self-replicating DNA and RNA.
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All right, let's take a look
at each one of these
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in detail today.
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So, one of the first things
that would have to happen,
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according to
that sequence of events
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that I shared with you previously
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is the abiotic synthesis
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of organic molecules.
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And researchers
in the 1950s were curious
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if that--
if they could get that to occur.
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and, you know, like, the conversations
at the time were
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well, what
did planet Earth's atmosphere
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look like at the time?
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Let me back up a minute.
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We think that the planet formed
about 4.6 billion years ago,
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but for
that first half a billion years,
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so from 4.6 billion years ago
to 4 billion years ago
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the planet
was probably not conducive
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to life ever forming
on the planet.
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There was--
it was constantly being bombarded
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by rocks and debris,
and it was a very hot environment.
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But about 4 point-- billion years ago,
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4 billion years ago,
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the planet cooled off,
the seas formed,
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and the environment was--
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the atmosphere, we don't know
exactly what it looked like,
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but we have some indication
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that there was methane
in the atmosphere,
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and there was ammonia
in the atmosphere,
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and there's hydrogen gas
in the atmosphere.
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And, whether or not it
was a-- a reducing environment
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or an oxidizing environment.
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Not sure.
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That refers to whether--
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you know, today we're living
in an oxidizing atmosphere, right?
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There's oxygen gas in our atmosphere
that will readily oxidize
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other compounds, right--
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steal electrons away from--
from other compounds.
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There was some indication recently
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that the environment was,
in contrast to that,
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a reducing environment full--
full of hydrogen gas,
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like you see here, H2,
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that would donate electrons
to compounds.
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So, regardless of that,
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this experiment right here
shows you an apparatus
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that was set up by a grad student
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from the University of Chicago
in 1953.
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His name was Stanley Miller.
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He and his--
his advisor worked on this project
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where they--
they attempted to simulate
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what they thought was the atmospheric
and oceanic conditions
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on the planet 4 billion years ago,
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to see if they could
get the abiotic synthesis
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of organic molecules.
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So, what you see in this apparatus
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is a container
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that might simulate the ocean.
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And, you know, we know
from volcanic activity in the ocean
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that there are areas where it's--
it's very hot.
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So, they-- they simulated that,
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you know,
providing thermal energy.
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And then, you know,
some of that water
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would, of course, evaporate.
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And this part
of the chamber, here,
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is kind of representing
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what we think
were atmospheric conditions.
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Here's methane, here's ammonia,
here's hydrogen gas.
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He simulated lightning
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with these electrodes here,
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again, providing energy.
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And then,
as that water vapor cooled--
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here's a condenser here.
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input cold--
cold water to cool it off
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to simulate
a cooler atmosphere.
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And then as that water condensed,
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he sampled it from time to time.
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And, honestly,
his graduate advisor
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actually thought
that there was no way that they
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were going to get any kind
of organic monomers anytime soon.
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You know, we thought that,
you know,
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if this happened
on the planet 4 billion years ago,
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how many million years did it take
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to get synthesis
of these organic molecules?
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But, lo and behold,
they actually got results
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in a matter of months.
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Three or four months later,
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they found in their sample,
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when they sampled it
for chemical analysis,
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they found amino acids,
amazingly enough.
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So, this did represent,
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you know, the phenomenon
that abiotic synthesis
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of organic molecules
can indeed occur.
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This was an exciting moment
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because it set the stage for--
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you know,
it set the stage chemically
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for the conditions for life.
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Another burning question,
so to speak,
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that we have is, well,
where did life originate on the planet?
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A lot of interested--
a lot of interest is being paid
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to these alkaline vents
that are in the deep sea.
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Here's a picture of one of these vents
in the slide here.
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These vents release water
with a very high pH;
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9, 10, 11.
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So, they're considered
alkaline vents.
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And also very warm water,
40 to 90 degrees C.
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And the conditions in these vents
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were probably very likely suitable
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for the formation of some
of these organic compounds.
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And, indeed,
researchers have looked at the surface
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of the structures
that formed these vents
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and found organic molecules attached
to those vents.
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So, maybe this
is where life arose.
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Other people are very interested
in looking at meteorites.
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Meteorites may have been
another source of organic molecules.
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For example,
the fragments of a meteorite
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called the Murchison meteorite,
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has been discovered
to contain more than 80 amino acids
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and other key organic molecules,
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including lipids, some sugars,
also some nitrogenous bases.
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So, maybe these are the--
maybe we can--
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maybe we can consider that that is
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where we got
these first organic molecules
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is from the meteorites
that have bombarded the planet.