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>>Susan Fisher: Well, we’re back.
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And we’re going to begin what may strike you as a diversion from our intended goal
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of learning about the biology of hope and belief.
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But alas, it turns out if you’re going to understand either one,
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we have to have a little bit of information of how humans process information
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and thought. And to do that we need
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to know something about the nervous system.
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Now, if you are, perchance, a psychology major, you’ve had all of this stuff.
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In fact, you can probably safely ignore a lot of what I’m going to say.
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But for the rest of you, particularly those who have not had grounding in biology,
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we’re going to spend a total of three modules talking about this.
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And for some of you this will be the most difficult part of the course.
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But I promise to tone it down and not ask of you things
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that we would ask of a biology major.
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For instance, you will not be asked solve a problem with the Nernst equation.
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For instance, we are really going to focus on the big picture here.
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But we do need to know something about the nervous system
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and how it’s set up and how it functions
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in order to get a grip on those issues that are relevant to this course.
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So I’m going to promise you something I cannot deliver.
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Namely, that talking about the nervous system and the ability to perceive things
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in the real world will lead us to an understanding of those ineffable things
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like the mind, the body, the spirit, the soul, all that stuff.
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Nobody can really tell you what that means.
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At least we can talk about it with some greater degree of clarity
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if we first talk about the nervous system.
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So that’s why we are going to do this.
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And again, for those of you who take part in these conversations
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of these modules and of the words and find it to be mind boggling and scary.
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Don’t worry. You’re going to have three of these to get through.
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Once you get through them, you’re more or less done with it except the final exam.
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And so it will be a breeze from here on out.
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But I like to get these more difficult presentations out of the way upfront
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so that once you’re done with this you’ve got free sailing.
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It’s like no big deal.
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So with that in mind, let’s get started.
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This is a presentation broken up for you in four convenient parts.
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During the first of which, we’re going to talk about the classic Robot Experiments.
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It’s an actual experiment done by actual scientists and this teaches us
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a lot about the differences between those things that have a brain
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and those things that do not.
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So, we’ll start with that and then we’ll go on to talk about
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the basic functions of the nervous system in living organisms that have it.
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We’ll continue on with a discussion of the evolution of the nervous system
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in organisms that have them and conclude with some remarks
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on the importance of the type and number of neurons
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and what those characteristics mean for the nervous system.
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So with that, let us begin.
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Alright. We are going to talk about this classic experiment
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involving a very early robot.
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It’s easily 20 years old, perhaps even a bit older than that.
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And what these folks were doing, they were in the realm of artificial intelligence
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and they created this little bot and given it ambulatory functions,
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as well as having programmed its microchips so it could respond to various commands.
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And the idea here was that the investigators took this robot
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and they put it at one end of a room and told it to move across the room
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and open a door on the other side.
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So, it was a relatively simple task for which it had the requisite technology
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at its disposal.
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It had the ability to respond to programming commands
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and it had the ability to move and then when it got to the other side of the room
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to actually physically open the door.
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So that was what they hoped to do and they wanted to monitor the robot’s progress
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in understanding and responding to the commands it was given.
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So it was a simple task but in the hands of… if in fact it had hands,
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of the robot it was absolutely mind boggling complicated, un-daunting task.
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Why is this? Well, the robot took the initial forage forward,
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as it was commanded to do, but at each imperceptible advance of the robot
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it had to completely restudy its orientation in the room.
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It had to visually calculate and evaluate the angles.
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Was it still on the floor? Was the ceiling still up there?
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What about the walls of the room? Were they still there?
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All of these things had to be assessed by the little robot.
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Until he had done that and determined and yes, all is well,
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I am still where I am, I can take the next advance forward.
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Let’s say it was two millimeters, not a very big distance
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but enough to then occasion the robot to have to redo all of these orientation functions
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again and again and again.
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So you can imagine that the graduate students involved in charge of this project
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were thinking, ‘okay, let’s go get a beer because this is taking forever
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and there’s nothing we can do to move this along’.
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So, yeah. It was probably not the most interesting thing to watch
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but it was part of the experiment and if you’re in charge of it
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this is what you get to do with your very exciting life.
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So the poor little robot does this again and again
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and even when confronted with change that we would probably consider
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to be imperceptible it wasn’t imperceptible to the robot
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it was a really big change causing great consternation and reinitiation
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of these functions of evaluating its orientation in space and time
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so that it could make the next move forward and pursue its goal
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of opening that darn door. So, it took hours, something like 12 hours
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for this robot to roll across a distance of 10 or 12 feet
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but it finally gets to the other side of the room
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and it dutifully opens the door no big deal.
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Mission accomplished.
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But now because they are scientists and scientists like to do creepy things.
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The scientists took our little intrepid robot and put it back at the starting line
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on the other side of the room and it told the robot, ‘okay, go open that door again’.
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But his time the door was emblazed with a big black X.
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So, to the humans involved this is like no big deal.
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Yeah, it’s a door. It’s got an X. Who cares? Whatever.
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But to the robot, it caused complete confusion leading to it not being able to function because why?
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Well, the robot knew nothing of X’s.
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What is this thing you call X? I know not.
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It could not generalize from its previous experience.
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It could not evaluate and conclude that the X on the door didn’t affect its functions
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it could easily still open the door. It could not learn.
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As a result, the poor robot turns away from the door dejected
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and absolutely unable to accomplish the task that it was given.
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So, this brings us to a stark reality for that robot,
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no matter how good its programming any change meant total change
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because it didn’t have the information in its data banks to evaluate the X on the door
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and make the decision that it didn’t fundamentally change what it was being asked to do.
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His previous … I don’t know why I called it a He but I did.
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Its previous experience did not provide meaningful information
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against which it could judge the current task and generalize a door was a door.
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It wasn’t capable of learning that idea in this experiment.
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Certainly, the kinds of robots we have today are vastly better than the robots
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that we’re talking about 20 or 30 years ago but the point I’m trying to make is
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even if we allow for the monumentally improvement in artificial intelligence
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and robotic technology that have so forth taken place in the intervening 20 or 30 years,
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even if we allow for that vast change,
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even the best robots that we could produce today couldn’t come close to handling
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what a typical two year-old toddler child could execute
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or even a comparatively lowly, simple mouse.
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Its brain is eminently more capable of absorbing and processing information
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than is the best robot that we have today and even an ant which we think of as
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a mindless automaton, much of the time, is much better capable
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of understanding information that comes in through the environment
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and responding appropriately having evaluated the nature of that information.
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So, we’ve got something really interesting going on.
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Once we get this thing called a brain and its attended nervous system that supports it.
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In contrast to the robot, which is a human construction,
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a living organism has this incredibly difficult task of receiving
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an endless stream of constantly changing sensory information
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from the external environment. It is absolutely essential that that organism
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be able to take this information in and evaluate its importance.
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And then, it has to having evaluated that information, act appropriately.
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One of the big things you find out when you study animals,
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is that much of their day, much of their nervous system activity,
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is spent deciding what information they can conveniently ignore.
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And you do this all the time too.
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You’re sitting at home maybe in the kitchen, there’s a whole bunch of noise,
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maybe there’s a fan in the ceiling that keeping the room cool.
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Maybe there’s an air conditioner, the stove might be making noise.
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The refrigerator makes a humming sound.
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All of these things are sensory input that your brain has to assess
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and react appropriately to and you probably won’t respond to any of these things
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because you’ve learned to block them out.
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They’re just background noise.
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We don’t pay attention, however, if the smoke alarm goes off.
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BAM! You’re right on it because if the place is on fire,
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you want to take appropriate action.
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And in the environment, an organisms survival is absolutely dependent on
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this function; evaluating what you need to know,
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responding appropriately to ensure your survival that is the first job, major job,
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of the nervous system.
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But organisms including humans have a second major task too,
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and that is to maintain the internal consistency of their inside environment.
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Your body is an amazing thing.
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It does all sorts of things that you don’t even think about.
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And one major part of that goal is to maintain all of the functions
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that are going on inside your body, inside each cell,
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within certain prescribed biological limits.
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We call these limits homeostasis, meaning maintenance of the same state.
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And it includes all sorts of things that you basically don’t think about
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much of the time. Thinks such as body temperature,
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which is one of the few functions that you might think about
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because your body temperature regularly fluctuates when you exercise
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or when you’re out in the cold so you have to learn ways to adjust what’s going on
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so that your body isn’t undone or severely impacted in a negative way
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by changing temperature.
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So that’s one you might think about but you probably don’t think about the water level
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in your cells much, you don’t think about the pH in your stomach.
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There are all sorts of things going on all of the time.
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All these body regulatory functions,
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all of them have limits within which these functions need to take place,
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otherwise, you get into trouble.
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And I think it goes without saying, but I’ll say it anyway,
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a lot of these functions are set up particularly in advance vertebrates, like humans,
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in such a way that we don’t have to think about them and that’s a really good thing.
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You have an automatic nervous system that takes care of all of this stuff
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so that you don’t have to give it a thought and that’s good because for instance,
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if you had to remember to breathe at some point you would have forgotten and
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therefore would not be listening to this module today.
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So, the nervous system does all of these boring, think-less things
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that we never have to think about and it’s a really good thing that it does.
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So, if we compare, let’s say, vertebrates, things that have a vertebral column,
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with other less developed organisms
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(they might have a nervous system but not one like a vertebrate does)
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we can start to look at some stark differences in those different kinds of organisms.
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All organisms have the same very basic needs
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and first among them is to avoid being eaten by some other organism
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because that pretty much ruins your day and means you will not be going on
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to the next part of our game here.
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But in addition to avoiding predation,
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organisms have to find, eat and then process food
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from which you drive energy to run your cells. A good thing.
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If you’re successful in avoiding predation and getting the necessary resources for life
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(including not only food but water) then you would have to find a mate
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so that you can reproduce yourself and send your genes into the next generation.
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Of course you need some sort of shelter
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in which you can shelter your body in inclement weather and so forth.
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So, basically, all of organisms that we’ve going to be interested in
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have those four basic survival functions,
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plus some others that we’re not going to talk about because you know, life is short.
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But if we look at higher level vertebrates in here we include humans,
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of course, but some other vertebrates as well.
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We might include dogs, we might include cats, we might include whales,
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or chimpanzees, or porpoises.
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In addition to the survival functions,
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they have some other really interesting things at their disposal.
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Many of them can perform music of various sorts.
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Humans are not the only animals that can do this, others can as well.
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And if we compare the possibilities for vertebrates against our intrepid little robot,
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we find that virtually all of the activities that these higher level of vertebrates can do are monstrously difficult.
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If you had to write a computer program to process the kinds of things
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that advance vertebrates could do, you’d be at it for quite a long time
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and you’d be a genius and you’d make a lot of money
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because nobody’s figured out how to do that yet.
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If we make a distinction between simple organisms
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as capable of doing the first four things we talked about on this list,
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we can distinguish them from the more complicated creatures
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because we and other species that I just mentioned,
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can do some really complicated, arcane, not necessary for survival
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kinds of things that include artistic kinds of things.
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Okay. So, what are those things that organisms can do that
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robots or a lower level animal cannot do and how is that possible?
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What is the explanation that provides the distinction between low level processing
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or survival based functions and the higher, or cognitive, or executive kinds of functions
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that advanced vertebrates, like us, are capable of.
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Well basically, the difference is we have these networks of neurons that form
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the nervous system that have the very important function of signal transduction
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of sensory input and other kinds of input and once the signal is received,
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the organisms can process that signal
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and do a whole variety of different things in response.
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One thing they might do is compare it to previous experience.
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In advanced vertebrates, such as ourselves, and the other things I mentioned previously,
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those organisms can formulate a strategic response
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so that whatever the problem that arises can be taken care of.
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We’ll give some more examples in greater detail in a few minutes
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but the point is, that you have this incredible thing called the nervous system
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that consists of neurons that allows you to execute all of these very sophisticated,
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not easy to replicate, kinds of functions within the vertebrate body.
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And this has been shaped by millennia, through the force of natural selection.
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It has really come to fruition in terms of cognitive abilities
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and perhaps some extra cognitive abilities,
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thought processes that are really important to the way the vertebrate mind works.
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So, if we look at sort of a spectrum of different possibilities for the nervous system,
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the nervous system as we understand it basically begins in the lowly worms
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and other organisms like starfish.
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We have a very, very basic level of nervous system
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that I’ll go over in more detail in a minute.
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Now, as an aside, there are entire classes of really sophisticated organisms
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that lack a nervous system completely and these are by large the more advanced plants,
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the angiosperm or flowering plants are a great example.
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They have no nervous system but they can do all of the homeostatic functions
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and survival functions even without it.
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So why have a nervous system if you can have a beautiful, lilac tree, or daisy flower,
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or rosebush, if you can have those organisms without a nervous system?
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Why did we bother to invest in a nervous system?
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And we are going to be taking that up in a few minutes
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because it’s a thoroughly important question:
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why is the nervous system so valuable to us that we would not want to forego it entirely
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like even advanced plants has?
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Why do we have this nervous system?
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Well, the basic answer is this:
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once the organisms on earth stopped being just unicellular organisms,
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in other words, very early life on earth in fact,
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for the first three billion years of existence of life on earth
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all of the organisms present had a single cell.
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Eventually, after three billion years after trying and retrying,
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the single cell approach to life,
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cells began to grip together and form multicellular forms.
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And even small multicellular forms could exist pretty much as multicellular animals,
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a group of loosely joined cells that shared some of the functions between cells.
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But by the time we get to the really complicated organisms
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that have hundreds of millions of cells in their composition,
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all of a sudden getting important information from one end of the organism,
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like the head to the big toe,
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was really complicated and couldn’t be done efficiently
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using the kind of processes that were available to single celled organisms
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or even advanced plants like the angiosperms.
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So, once organisms, particularly animal organisms became multicellular
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the processes by which a message could be communicated
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from one part of an organism to another was simply too slow for the large organisms
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to respond quickly to changes in internal or external environments
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and this problem was solved by developing a nervous system
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which allows for at least in our time scale,
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the nearly instantaneous transmission of a message from the head to the toe.
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It’s like when you walk into a room and flip on a light switch
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it’s nearly instantaneous that the light goes on.
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And yes, I know that there is finite teeny-tiny period amount of time
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which there’s no light after you flip the switch
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but it’s so fast that it might as well be instantaneous
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and that’s the way the nervous system behaves in a vertebrate body.
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So let’s talk a little bit about the evolution of that nervous system
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from the relatively simple forms with which it started
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to the very advanced forms like that which humans have.
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All told there are two basic types of nervous systems.
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We call these diffuse on the one hand this if the primitive form,
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and the other alternative modality is to have a centralized nervous system.
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So in the case of a diffuse nervous system…
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I wonder if I can get my little yeah there we go pen go in here.
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Okay so an organism with a diffuse nervous system
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is something like the sea anemone that you see here.
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It’s just this bundle of little spaghetti like lines.
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Those are the neurons, the nerve cells,
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and they’re not highly organized they’re just kind of there like a net
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like a hair net…something like that.
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Another example of a diffuse nervous system is the starfish you see here,
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and it looks a little bit more organized than this sea anemone.
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And it probably is.
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It’s a little more advanced,
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but both of these animals of the sea anemone and the sea star are radially symmetric.
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They’re not, you can’t draw a singular line down the body of these animals
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and get two equal halves because they have many planes of symmetry
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by which they can be divided in half.
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So they’re fundamentally different from other kinds of animals.
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The other kind of nervous system,
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the centralized nervous system, is more common.
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It’s the more advanced, and here are some animals.
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Hey, look at all these red lines!
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I could really get carried away here.
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Okay so these are all animals that have a centralized nervous system,
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but even if were talking about a centralized nervous system
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where large numbers of neurons are gathered together into functional units
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there are still some fairly cosmic differences
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between primitive and advanced centralized nervous systems.
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So we’ll talk about those right now!
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In terms of the evolution of the nervous systems,
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even those which are centralized,
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we would begin with the flatworms.
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They are the least developed organisms with a centralized nervous system.
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And what makes this a centralized nervous system
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is that we have a brain which is an amalgamation of a whole bunch of neurons
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into a single unit that has a specific functions associated with it.
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This is a primitive organism because we have two nerve cords extending from the brain.
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So, this is the inaugural step in the formation of an advanced nervous system
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but it is not full advanced because of the characteristics I mentioned
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we then move into the annelids or the earthworms which you see down here.
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And now, we have a completely centralized brain.
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It’s this one in the flatworms consists basically of two halves
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well in the earthworm the two halves get fused together
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so it’s more highly centralized.
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We also have only one nerve cord coming out of the brain instead of two.
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Although, we have highly segmented helper brains
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or ganglia that run along the length of this single nerve cord.
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So it’s more advanced than the flatworms’
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but less advanced compared to what comes after it.
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What does come after it?
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Well, the next step in this evolutionary trajectory would be the giant squid that you see here.
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Where is my line? There it is.
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Here is our squid, and you can see that this is really nicely centralized.
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We have a nice big brain. We also have eyes in the squid.
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Who knew?
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We have some ganglia left along the central nerve cord,
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but more importantly what we now have is a whole bunch of peripheral nerves
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that come off the central nerve cord and innervate other parts of the body.
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So, those are some of the developments that make this a higher organism
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that is to say the squid than that which came before it.
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And lastly, we get to the pinnacle of vertebrate evolution
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we have the human being.
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And we now see a very important thing happening up here in the brain.
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This is our major advance we call this a cephalized nervous system
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because all of the executive functions are gathered
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and put into the brain and because the word in Latin for brain is cephalous.
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If we say a nervous system is cephalized it means all of the important stuff well,
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that’s not entirely true,
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all of the executive functions and regulatory functions are given to the brain.
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Which is in the head and therefore is called cephalic.
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So, the human nervous system, the vertebrate nervous system,
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is not only centralized its cephalized.
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So, as I mentioned, to recapitulate the evolution
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of simple nervous systems started with the flatworms,
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which were the first bilaterally symmetrical systems.
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Although we still had two longitudinal nerve cords.
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Boy! Can I speak in English? Help me.
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Then we moved onto the… from the flat worms to the annelid worms,
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the earth worms that are moderately centralized.
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They had a very distinct brain with some ganglia coming off the brain.
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And then we moved on to the more advance stuff of which we're the pentacle.
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So prior getting into humans we had further cephalization concentration
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of executive functions in the brain.
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We had some other things to show up like eyes, certainly important.
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And control of specific functions, things like locomotion or motion and feeding
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get compartmentalized and concentrated
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in the highly centralized nervous system in the brain.
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So additional examples in addition to the squid
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are octopuses have a highly centralized nervous system as do insects.
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Yes, insects do have a nervous system.
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Who knew? And lastly, we get to us.
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Where we have lots more neurons present,
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a very high degree of centralization as you would expect
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but also this thing called cephalization
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which is the concentration of all of these important functions in the brain itself.
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We also have the division of our highly cephalized brain into distinct units.
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We have lobes that are associated with particular functions like olfaction.
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Or executive function in the forebrain, the conscious thought,
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ability to reason, that sort of thing, in the forebrain.
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I mentioned the five regions of the brain which we’ll go over again in another lecture.
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And of course, because we have all of these amazingly important functions
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now residing in a single location in the vertebral brain
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we’ve gone through an awful lot of trouble to protect the brain
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by the use of a skull and several other adaptations
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whose function is to preserve the integrity of the brain against assault.
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So, in terms of vertebrate nervous systems and the characteristic I just mentioned.
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We’re talking about all of the things from fish
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which are vertebrates to us which are vertebrates.
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Now, at this point it’s a good time to mention that there are three kinds of neurons.
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The nervous system, as you might expect, is composed of these cells called neurons.
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And despite the multitude of functions that these neurons have to carry out,
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there are only three types of neurons
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irrespective of which kind of organism we’re talking about.
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So, what are they?
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Well they are first of all the sensory neurons.
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Which have the job of carrying information, not surprisingly,
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from the sense organs to the brain and the spinal cord,
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and these are the things that help us perceive things
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that are going on in the external environment
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and by taking the information up the spinal cord
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and then to the brain where the information gets analyzed and the response is formulated.
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We have the ability to take whatever response is appropriate
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given the information at hand.
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So these are very important neurons in helping us respond to
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and perceiving the environment.
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Secondly, we have motor neurons, which carry messages from the brain and the spinal cord
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back to muscles and glands which are in the periphery.
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This is important because as I mentioned
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you perceive information from the environment
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through your sense organs feed that information to the brain.
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The brain analyzes it and figures out what response you should take,
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and one response you might take is to decide
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you know what Danger! Danger! Let’s get out of here!
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And then the brain would send a message
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using your motor neurons to your muscles
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saying “get the heck out of dodge. There is danger.”
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and that’s kind of how it works.
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Finally, we have these things called inter neurons
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because you know if you’re sending a message from your brain to your big toe,
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you know, that’s a lot of ground to cover.
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And so, your response might start up in the brain,
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feed information to the spinal cord,
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and then to a motor neuron.
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But probably if you’re sending the message a long way
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then the motor neuron would be given the information by an inter neuron
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that would serve as an intermediary messenger
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between the spinal cord and the motor neuron that generates response.
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So even though the stuff we’re going to be talking about is incredibly complicated,
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the basic machinery used to perform those functions is pretty simple.
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We’re always talking about neurons of one form of another.
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And there’s only three. How hard can this be, I ask you.
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So here’s an individual neuron,
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and it very nicely shows the important structure of the neuron
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that I’m going to want you to be familiar with.
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First of all, we have what we would call a cell body,
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and this is the part of the cell that contains
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all of those organelles that you learned about in basic biology class
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that carry out the important functions of running the cell.
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Things like the nucleus, the mitochondria, the Golgi bodies, the ER
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all of that stuff is contained here in the cell body
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which is also known as a Selma in the case of a neuron.
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So that’s the first important part of the cell I want you to know about.
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The second part of the cell which is distinct, two cells that are neurons
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are these highly branched functions that branch off or come off of the cell body.
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And these are given the name dendrites.
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They’re very important because they serve as part of the mechanism
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that helps this neuron communicate with other neurons.
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So that’s the second important part the dendrites.
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They’re distinguished by the fact that they have
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all these little branches on them,
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and incidentally the word dendrite comes from the route dendrology.
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Dendrology is the study of trees.
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Trees have branches, and that’s why these highly branched processes were named dendrites.
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Because biologists are very clever.
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I’m sure you will agree.
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Okay! The third important part of the neuron
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is this long unbranched process, which we call an axon.
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A.X.O.N.
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At the end of the axon we see some branches,
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but it’s not the same as the dendrite which is branched throughout its length.
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So this third important art is called the axon.
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Now over here you see a whole bunch of neurons together.
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So these things, these big yellow globs, are the cell bodies,
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and all the rest of these spaghetti like hairy processes things
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are the collection of axons and dendrites that join these neurons together.
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And don’t worry well talk about this again.
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“Oh joy”, I hear you cry.
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So if we add it all up
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and try to account for the difference between, let’s say, a nematode and a man
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it’s actually pretty easy.
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It’s simply the number of neurons and the structural arrangement in the nervous system.
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So basically the grater the number of neurons an organism has
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the greater the complexity of that organism’s thought processes
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and the greater the potential range of adaptive responses
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to any particular stimulus will be.
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So if we take for instance a flatworm that faces mortal danger,
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its primary mode of dealing with that problem is simply to leave the area,
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to get away, to flee if it can do so.
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However, if were talking about a human facing mortal danger,
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that human responses are much more nuanced
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and may include things like prevention…
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don’t go into an area where danger lurks for instance.
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But, having been presented with danger
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you can then form a plot to escape
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or maybe you had the foresight to bring a weapon with you
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so those would be additional avenues by which you could avoid the danger that is present.
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Or maybe you got your cell phone on you
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because God knows all youth have a cell phone.
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I don’t understand this.
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My children feel naked without their phones.
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I’m, you know, I’m perfectly happy with a rotary phone that hangs on the wall,
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but you know I’m old. Okay.
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So if you’ve got your phone on you,
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you can you know do a quick dial to a friend and say
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“Help me! Help me! Send to cops.”
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Or whatever, and so you have this other modality by which you can respond.
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Because you’ve got these extra neurons and a highly centralized and cephalized brain.
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Good job!
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So as the complexity of a species brain increases in the vertebrate lineage
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the number of neurons also increases
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and that is the one major characteristic of
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increased executive function with higher numbers of neurons.
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In addition, the existing neurons,
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because even more intimately entangled through
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the elaboration of dendrites in other words,
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the number of connections between the neurons that exist in highly complicated species also increases.
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In addition, as the number of in neurons increase.
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They also begin to cluster in these specialized units
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that we were talking about
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and that increases again the sophistication of processing that is possible in that brain.
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So circuits develop among various structures within a highly sophisticated vertebrae,
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vertebrate brain,
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and the idea behind the circuits is to be able to rapidly share and trade information
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in a rich multi-layered perception and potential response to the world.
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And really advanced vertebrates,
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have an existing, excuse me,
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additional thing which we call memory
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that can be used to make future decisions
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based on things that have been happening in the past
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and were stored in the brain.
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So you can see that as the number of neurons increases.
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We have no idea what kind of memory a flatworm has, probably not much.
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Probably most of its functions are instinctual in nature,
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but by the time we get to humans,
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we can log all this information into our data banks.
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We can store it, we might modify it if there’s an emotional attachment to it
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or if there’s a learning function that goes with it.
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We’ve got all of this function that we can use
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to give ourselves multiple options for any situation that arises.
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In fact, the human brain is so darn complex
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that we can just we can do amazing amazing
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I mean I cannot emphasize how incredibly amzing
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all of these things are.
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Not just survival that we’re looking at,
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humans want to do all sorts of other things.
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Like anticipate the future.
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Think about how amazing that is.
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We not only know that a future exists.
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We can imagine different outcomes for that future.
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We can play different scenarios in our mind,
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and once we’ve done that we might take actions born of our internal desires
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and our memories and our life history
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to secure a particular outcome in that future.
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It’s an amazing thing because it requires the integration of all things,
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like memories of our experiences.
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We might not even have our own memories.
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We might have memories that are given to us by stories,
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by the sharing of other people’s experiences and desires and attitude
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through language, through books, or through sitting at the dinner table
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listening to stories from our collective pasts.
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It’s amazing!
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So we get these ideas that don’t even come from our own experience
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but from other people’s,
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and we integrate them into our data banks.
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Humans also have,
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perhaps a unique ability, we're not really sure about this,
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to conceive a really things that you can’t really see necessarily
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but you know it when you see it
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to paraphrase a supreme court justice.
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So we can conceive things like beauty.
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So this beauty, does a flat worm think of beauty does a sheep?
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I don’t know. Certainly humans do.
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I think there’s some birds that do
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because they certainly invest a lot of energy into making beautiful males
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to be attractive to females who choose normally these sexually departments.
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So, you know we’ve got some other organisms that then might have a sense of beauty
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but humans at least have the ability to not only see it
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but write about it or make representations of it.
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It’s kind of amazing.
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We’ve also cultivated a moral sense,
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an idea that some things are right and some things are wrong.
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Now here we do not stand alone.
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There are other organisms among the vertebrates who also have a moral sense,
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but in humans it also becomes a full flower or methyl flower.
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We at least know what’s morally correct.
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We doesn’t always do it, I know, but there’s that.
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We understand virtue. We understand good and evil.
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We are at east hopeful that we will choose the good and not the evil,
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but as you know that doesn’t always happen either.
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Even more importantly and more interestingly,
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we have this massive creative sense.
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Humans are by their very nature artists
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and this comes into play very early on in the human lineage
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where people were drawing pictures on cave walls
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and making pots and even when they were doing something fairly proletarian,
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like making a weapon,
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often they decorated it just to make it pretty,
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obviously it didn’t improve its function,
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but it made it look pretty.
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That’s what humans are.
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We have this genius and this inspirational sense
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that motivates us to do these really really interesting things
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and then beyond that we’ve got this organization of society
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that is not the product of biological entities.
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We’ve created a culture.
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We have a complicated economic system.
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We have different economic systems.
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Some countries like it one way, some another.
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We have technology. We have science.
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We have humans who have, in their free time, just you know one day created calculus.
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You know? You just...
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Isaac Newton invented calculus one day doing nothing else.
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After he was done inventing gravity,
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well he didn’t invent it, but he figure it out.
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How it worked.
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And then you’ve got Einstein and MC squared and Mozart.
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How do you account for Mozart?
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You know it just boggles the mind,
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but that is the kind and the level of thing of which humans are capable
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because we have this thing called a nervous system
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that operates at an excessively high level.
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So there’s your study guide for the science of perception
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and we’ll take it up
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we’ll take the nervous system up again in the next two presentations.
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I know, no need to thank me.