How transistors work - Gokul J. Krishnan
-
0:07 - 0:10Modern computers
are revolutionizing our lives, -
0:10 - 0:14performing tasks unimaginable
only decades ago. -
0:14 - 0:17This was made possible by a long series
of innovations, -
0:17 - 0:23but there's one foundational invention
that almost everything else relies upon: -
0:23 - 0:24the transistor.
-
0:24 - 0:25So what is that,
-
0:25 - 0:30and how does such a device enable
all the amazing things computers can do? -
0:30 - 0:34Well, at their core, all computers
are just what the name implies, -
0:34 - 0:37machines that perform
mathematical operations. -
0:37 - 0:41The earliest computers were manual
counting devices, -
0:41 - 0:42like the abacus,
-
0:42 - 0:44while later ones used mechanical parts.
-
0:44 - 0:49What made them computers was having
a way to represent numbers -
0:49 - 0:51and a system for manipulating them.
-
0:51 - 0:53Electronic computers work the same way,
-
0:53 - 0:55but instead of physical arrangements,
-
0:55 - 0:59the numbers are represented
by electric voltages. -
0:59 - 1:03Most such computers use a type of math
called Boolean logic -
1:03 - 1:05that has only two possible values,
-
1:05 - 1:08the logical conditions true and false,
-
1:08 - 1:11denoted by binary digits one and zero.
-
1:11 - 1:14They are represented by high
and low voltages. -
1:14 - 1:18Equations are implemented
via logic gate circuits -
1:18 - 1:21that produce an output of one or zero
-
1:21 - 1:25based on whether the inputs satisfy
a certain logical statement. -
1:25 - 1:29These circuits perform three fundamental
logical operations, -
1:29 - 1:32conjunction, disjunction, and negation.
-
1:32 - 1:37The way conjunction works is an "and gate"
provides a high-voltage output -
1:37 - 1:41only if it receives
two high-voltage inputs, -
1:41 - 1:43and the other gates work
by similar principles. -
1:43 - 1:47Circuits can be combined to perform
complex operations, -
1:47 - 1:49like addition and subtraction.
-
1:49 - 1:51And computer programs
consist of instructions -
1:51 - 1:55for electronically performing
these operations. -
1:55 - 1:58This kind of system needs a reliable
and accurate method -
1:58 - 2:00for controlling electric current.
-
2:00 - 2:03Early electronic computers,
like the ENIAC, -
2:03 - 2:06used a device called the vacuum tube.
-
2:06 - 2:08Its early form, the diode,
-
2:08 - 2:12consisted of two electrodes
in an evacuated glass container. -
2:12 - 2:17Applying a voltage to the cathode
makes it heat up and release electrons. -
2:17 - 2:20If the anode is at a slightly
higher positive potential, -
2:20 - 2:23the electrons are attracted to it,
-
2:23 - 2:24completing the circuit.
-
2:24 - 2:27This unidirectional
current flow could be controlled -
2:27 - 2:30by varying the voltage to the cathode,
-
2:30 - 2:33which makes it release more
or less electrons. -
2:33 - 2:35The next stage was the triode,
-
2:35 - 2:38which uses a third electrode
called the grid. -
2:38 - 2:41This is a wire screen
between the cathode and anode -
2:41 - 2:44through which electrons could pass.
-
2:44 - 2:46Varying its voltage makes it either repel
-
2:46 - 2:50or attract the electrons
emitted by the cathode, -
2:50 - 2:52thus, enabling fast current-switching.
-
2:52 - 2:58The ability to amplify signals
also made the triode crucial for radio -
2:58 - 3:00and long distance communication.
-
3:00 - 3:05But despite these advancements,
vacuum tubes were unreliable and bulky. -
3:05 - 3:09With 18,000 triodes, ENIAC was nearly
the size of a tennis court -
3:09 - 3:11and weighed 30 tons.
-
3:11 - 3:13Tubes failed every other day,
-
3:13 - 3:19and in one hour, it consumed the amount
of electricity used by 15 homes in a day. -
3:19 - 3:21The solution was the transistor.
-
3:21 - 3:24Instead of electrodes,
it uses a semiconductor, -
3:24 - 3:27like silicon treated
with different elements -
3:27 - 3:30to create an electron-emitting N-type,
-
3:30 - 3:33and an electron absorbing P-type.
-
3:33 - 3:35These are arranged in three
alternating layers -
3:35 - 3:37with a terminal at each.
-
3:37 - 3:40The emitter, the base, and the collector.
-
3:40 - 3:42In this typical NPN transistor,
-
3:42 - 3:45due to certain phenomena
at the P-N interface, -
3:45 - 3:50a special region called a P-N junction
forms between the emitter and base. -
3:50 - 3:52It only conducts electricity
-
3:52 - 3:57when a voltage exceeding
a certain threshold is applied. -
3:57 - 3:59Otherwise, it remains switched off.
-
3:59 - 4:02In this way, small variations
in the input voltage -
4:02 - 4:07can be used to quickly switch between
high and low-output currents. -
4:07 - 4:12The advantage of the transistor lies
in its efficiency and compactness. -
4:12 - 4:17Because they don't require heating,
they're more durable and use less power. -
4:17 - 4:22ENIAC's functionality can now be surpassed
by a single fingernail-sized microchip -
4:22 - 4:25containing billions of transistors.
-
4:25 - 4:27At trillions of calculations per second,
-
4:27 - 4:31today's computers may seem like
they're performing miracles, -
4:31 - 4:32but underneath it all,
-
4:32 - 4:37each individual operation is still
as simple as the flick of a switch.
- Title:
- How transistors work - Gokul J. Krishnan
- Description:
-
View full lesson: http://ed.ted.com/lessons/how-transistors-work-gokul-j-krishnan
Modern computers are revolutionizing our lives, performing tasks unimaginable only decades ago. This was made possible by a long series of innovations, but there’s one foundational invention that almost everything else relies upon: the transistor. Gokul J. Krishnan describes what a transistor is and how this small device enables all the amazing things computers can do.
Lesson by Gokul J. Krishna, animation by Augenblick Studios.
- Video Language:
- English
- Team:
- closed TED
- Project:
- TED-Ed
- Duration:
- 04:54
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