What explains the rise of humans?
-
0:01 - 0:06Seventy-thousand years ago, our ancestors
were insignificant animals. -
0:06 - 0:10The most important thing to know
about prehistoric humans -
0:11 - 0:12is that they were unimportant.
-
0:12 - 0:18Their impact on the world was not
much greater than that of jellyfish -
0:18 - 0:20or fireflies or woodpeckers.
-
0:21 - 0:24Today, in contrast,
we control this planet. -
0:25 - 0:26And the question is:
-
0:26 - 0:29How did we come from there to here?
-
0:30 - 0:33How did we turn ourselves
from insignificant apes, -
0:33 - 0:36minding their own business
in a corner of Africa, -
0:37 - 0:39into the rulers of planet Earth?
-
0:40 - 0:46Usually, we look for the difference
between us and all the other animals -
0:46 - 0:47on the individual level.
-
0:47 - 0:50We want to believe -- I want to believe --
-
0:50 - 0:54that there is something special about me,
-
0:54 - 0:57about my body, about my brain,
-
0:57 - 1:02that makes me so superior
to a dog or a pig, or a chimpanzee. -
1:03 - 1:06But the truth is that,
on the individual level, -
1:07 - 1:10I'm embarrassingly similar
to a chimpanzee. -
1:10 - 1:15And if you take me and a chimpanzee
and put us together on some lonely island, -
1:15 - 1:20and we had to struggle for survival
to see who survives better, -
1:20 - 1:25I would definitely place my bet
on the chimpanzee, not on myself. -
1:25 - 1:28And this is not something
wrong with me personally. -
1:28 - 1:33I guess if they took almost any one
of you, and placed you alone -
1:33 - 1:35with a chimpanzee on some island,
-
1:35 - 1:37the chimpanzee would do much better.
-
1:39 - 1:43The real difference between humans
and all other animals -
1:43 - 1:45is not on the individual level;
-
1:46 - 1:47it's on the collective level.
-
1:48 - 1:52Humans control the planet
because they are the only animals -
1:52 - 1:58that can cooperate both flexibly
and in very large numbers. -
1:58 - 2:00Now, there are other animals --
-
2:00 - 2:03like the social insects,
the bees, the ants -- -
2:03 - 2:08that can cooperate in large numbers,
but they don't do so flexibly. -
2:08 - 2:11Their cooperation is very rigid.
-
2:11 - 2:15There is basically just one way
in which a beehive can function. -
2:15 - 2:19And if there's a new opportunity
or a new danger, -
2:19 - 2:24the bees cannot reinvent
the social system overnight. -
2:24 - 2:26They cannot, for example,
execute the queen -
2:27 - 2:28and establish a republic of bees,
-
2:28 - 2:32or a communist dictatorship
of worker bees. -
2:32 - 2:35Other animals, like the social mammals --
-
2:35 - 2:39the wolves, the elephants,
the dolphins, the chimpanzees -- -
2:39 - 2:41they can cooperate much more flexibly,
-
2:41 - 2:45but they do so only in small numbers,
-
2:45 - 2:48because cooperation among chimpanzees
-
2:48 - 2:52is based on intimate knowledge,
one of the other. -
2:52 - 2:55I'm a chimpanzee and you're a chimpanzee,
-
2:55 - 2:56and I want to cooperate with you.
-
2:56 - 2:59I need to know you personally.
-
2:59 - 3:01What kind of chimpanzee are you?
-
3:01 - 3:02Are you a nice chimpanzee?
-
3:02 - 3:04Are you an evil chimpanzee?
-
3:04 - 3:05Are you trustworthy?
-
3:05 - 3:08If I don't know you, how can I
cooperate with you? -
3:10 - 3:13The only animal that can combine
the two abilities together -
3:13 - 3:19and cooperate both flexibly
and still do so in very large numbers -
3:19 - 3:20is us, Homo sapiens.
-
3:21 - 3:25One versus one, or even 10 versus 10,
-
3:25 - 3:28chimpanzees might be better than us.
-
3:28 - 3:33But, if you pit 1,000 humans
against 1,000 chimpanzees, -
3:33 - 3:37the humans will win easily,
for the simple reason -
3:37 - 3:41that a thousand chimpanzees
cannot cooperate at all. -
3:41 - 3:45And if you now try to cram
100,000 chimpanzees -
3:45 - 3:49into Oxford Street,
or into Wembley Stadium, -
3:49 - 3:52or Tienanmen Square or the Vatican,
-
3:52 - 3:54you will get chaos, complete chaos.
-
3:54 - 3:58Just imagine Wembley Stadium
with 100,000 chimpanzees. -
3:59 - 4:00Complete madness.
-
4:00 - 4:06In contrast, humans normally
gather there in tens of thousands, -
4:06 - 4:09and what we get is not chaos, usually.
-
4:09 - 4:15What we get is extremely sophisticated
and effective networks of cooperation. -
4:17 - 4:21All the huge achievements
of humankind throughout history, -
4:21 - 4:24whether it's building the pyramids
or flying to the moon, -
4:24 - 4:27have been based not
on individual abilities, -
4:27 - 4:31but on this ability to cooperate
flexibly in large numbers. -
4:31 - 4:35Think even about this very talk
that I'm giving now: -
4:35 - 4:41I'm standing here in front of an audience
of about 300 or 400 people, -
4:41 - 4:44most of you are complete strangers to me.
-
4:45 - 4:50Similarly, I don't really know
all the people who have organized -
4:50 - 4:52and worked on this event.
-
4:52 - 4:56I don't know the pilot
and the crew members of the plane -
4:56 - 4:59that brought me over here,
yesterday, to London. -
4:59 - 5:03I don't know the people
who invented and manufactured -
5:03 - 5:08this microphone and these cameras,
which are recording what I'm saying. -
5:08 - 5:12I don't know the people
who wrote all the books and articles -
5:12 - 5:14that I read in preparation for this talk.
-
5:14 - 5:17And I certainly don't know all the people
-
5:17 - 5:21who might be watching this talk
over the Internet, -
5:21 - 5:24somewhere in Buenos Aires or in New Delhi.
-
5:24 - 5:28Nevertheless, even though
we don't know each other, -
5:28 - 5:34we can work together to create
this global exchange of ideas. -
5:34 - 5:37This is something chimpanzees cannot do.
-
5:37 - 5:39They communicate, of course,
-
5:39 - 5:45but you will never catch a chimpanzee
traveling to some distant chimpanzee band -
5:45 - 5:49to give them a talk about bananas
or about elephants, -
5:49 - 5:52or anything else that might
interest chimpanzees. -
5:53 - 5:57Now cooperation is, of course,
not always nice; -
5:57 - 6:01all the horrible things humans
have been doing throughout history -- -
6:01 - 6:04and we have been doing
some very horrible things -- -
6:04 - 6:09all those things are also based
on large-scale cooperation. -
6:09 - 6:11Prisons are a system of cooperation;
-
6:12 - 6:14slaughterhouses are a system
of cooperation; -
6:15 - 6:18concentration camps
are a system of cooperation. -
6:18 - 6:23Chimpanzees don't have slaughterhouses
and prisons and concentration camps. -
6:24 - 6:28Now suppose I've managed
to convince you perhaps that yes, -
6:28 - 6:33we control the world because we can
cooperate flexibly in large numbers. -
6:34 - 6:36The next question that immediately arises
-
6:36 - 6:39in the mind of an inquisitive listener is:
-
6:39 - 6:42How, exactly, do we do it?
-
6:42 - 6:48What enables us alone, of all the animals,
to cooperate in such a way? -
6:50 - 6:52The answer is our imagination.
-
6:53 - 6:58We can cooperate flexibly
with countless numbers of strangers, -
6:58 - 7:02because we alone, of all
the animals on the planet, -
7:02 - 7:07can create and believe fictions,
fictional stories. -
7:07 - 7:12And as long as everybody believes
in the same fiction, -
7:12 - 7:15everybody obeys and follows
the same rules, -
7:16 - 7:18the same norms, the same values.
-
7:19 - 7:23All other animals use
their communication system -
7:23 - 7:25only to describe reality.
-
7:26 - 7:30A chimpanzee may say, "Look!
There's a lion, let's run away!" -
7:30 - 7:34Or, "Look! There's a banana tree
over there! Let's go and get bananas!" -
7:34 - 7:40Humans, in contrast, use their language
not merely to describe reality, -
7:40 - 7:45but also to create new realities,
fictional realities. -
7:45 - 7:49A human can say, "Look,
there is a god above the clouds! -
7:49 - 7:51And if you don't do what I tell you to do,
-
7:51 - 7:55when you die, God will punish you
and send you to hell." -
7:55 - 7:59And if you all believe this story
that I've invented, -
7:59 - 8:03then you will follow the same
norms and laws and values, -
8:03 - 8:04and you can cooperate.
-
8:04 - 8:07This is something only humans can do.
-
8:07 - 8:11You can never convince a chimpanzee
to give you a banana -
8:11 - 8:15by promising him, "... after you die,
you'll go to chimpanzee heaven ..." -
8:15 - 8:16(Laughter)
-
8:16 - 8:19"... and you'll receive lots and lots
of bananas for your good deeds. -
8:19 - 8:21So now give me this banana."
-
8:21 - 8:23No chimpanzee will ever
believe such a story. -
8:24 - 8:26Only humans believe such stories,
-
8:26 - 8:29which is why we control the world,
-
8:29 - 8:33whereas the chimpanzees are locked up
in zoos and research laboratories. -
8:35 - 8:38Now you may find it acceptable that yes,
-
8:38 - 8:44in the religious field, humans cooperate
by believing in the same fictions. -
8:44 - 8:49Millions of people come together
to build a cathedral or a mosque -
8:49 - 8:55or fight in a crusade or a jihad, because
they all believe in the same stories -
8:55 - 8:57about God and heaven and hell.
-
8:58 - 9:03But what I want to emphasize
is that exactly the same mechanism -
9:03 - 9:09underlies all other forms
of mass-scale human cooperation, -
9:09 - 9:12not only in the religious field.
-
9:12 - 9:14Take, for example, the legal field.
-
9:15 - 9:21Most legal systems today in the world
are based on a belief in human rights. -
9:21 - 9:23But what are human rights?
-
9:24 - 9:28Human rights, just like God and heaven,
are just a story that we've invented. -
9:28 - 9:31They are not an objective reality;
-
9:31 - 9:34they are not some biological effect
about homo sapiens. -
9:35 - 9:39Take a human being,
cut him open, look inside, -
9:39 - 9:44you will find the heart, the kidneys,
neurons, hormones, DNA, -
9:44 - 9:46but you won't find any rights.
-
9:46 - 9:50The only place you find rights
are in the stories -
9:50 - 9:54that we have invented and spread around
over the last few centuries. -
9:55 - 10:00They may be very positive stories,
very good stories, -
10:00 - 10:03but they're still just fictional stories
that we've invented. -
10:04 - 10:06The same is true of the political field.
-
10:07 - 10:13The most important factors
in modern politics are states and nations. -
10:13 - 10:15But what are states and nations?
-
10:16 - 10:18They are not an objective reality.
-
10:18 - 10:20A mountain is an objective reality.
-
10:20 - 10:24You can see it, you can touch it,
you can even smell it. -
10:24 - 10:26But a nation or a state,
-
10:26 - 10:30like Israel or Iran or France or Germany,
-
10:30 - 10:33this is just a story that we've invented
-
10:33 - 10:35and became extremely attached to.
-
10:35 - 10:37The same is true of the economic field.
-
10:38 - 10:42The most important actors today
in the global economy -
10:42 - 10:44are companies and corporations.
-
10:44 - 10:48Many of you today, perhaps, work
for a corporation, -
10:48 - 10:51like Google or Toyota or McDonald's.
-
10:52 - 10:53What exactly are these things?
-
10:54 - 10:58They are what lawyers call legal fictions.
-
10:58 - 11:02They are stories invented and maintained
-
11:02 - 11:05by the powerful wizards we call lawyers.
-
11:05 - 11:07(Laughter)
-
11:07 - 11:10And what do corporations do all day?
-
11:10 - 11:13Mostly, they try to make money.
-
11:13 - 11:15Yet, what is money?
-
11:15 - 11:20Again, money is not an objective reality;
it has no objective value. -
11:20 - 11:23Take this green piece
of paper, the dollar bill. -
11:23 - 11:26Look at it -- it has no value.
-
11:26 - 11:28You cannot eat it, you cannot drink it,
-
11:28 - 11:29you cannot wear it.
-
11:30 - 11:34But then came along
these master storytellers -- -
11:34 - 11:35the big bankers,
-
11:35 - 11:37the finance ministers,
-
11:37 - 11:38the prime ministers --
-
11:38 - 11:41and they tell us a very convincing story:
-
11:41 - 11:43"Look, you see this green piece of paper?
-
11:43 - 11:45It is actually worth 10 bananas."
-
11:46 - 11:48And if I believe it, and you believe it,
-
11:48 - 11:49and everybody believes it,
-
11:49 - 11:51it actually works.
-
11:51 - 11:54I can take this worthless piece of paper,
-
11:54 - 11:56go to the supermarket,
-
11:56 - 12:00give it to a complete stranger
whom I've never met before, -
12:00 - 12:04and get, in exchange, real bananas
which I can actually eat. -
12:05 - 12:07This is something amazing.
-
12:07 - 12:09You could never do it with chimpanzees.
-
12:09 - 12:11Chimpanzees trade, of course:
-
12:11 - 12:13"Yes, you give me a coconut,
I'll give you a banana." -
12:13 - 12:15That can work.
-
12:15 - 12:18But, you give me
a worthless piece of paper -
12:18 - 12:20and you except me to give you a banana?
-
12:20 - 12:21No way!
-
12:21 - 12:23What do you think I am, a human?
-
12:23 - 12:25(Laughter)
-
12:25 - 12:29Money, in fact, is
the most successful story -
12:29 - 12:32ever invented and told by humans,
-
12:32 - 12:36because it is the only story
everybody believes. -
12:37 - 12:39Not everybody believes in God,
-
12:40 - 12:43not everybody believes in human rights,
-
12:43 - 12:45not everybody believes in nationalism,
-
12:45 - 12:49but everybody believes in money,
and in the dollar bill. -
12:50 - 12:51Take, even, Osama Bin Laden.
-
12:52 - 12:55He hated American politics
and American religion -
12:55 - 12:57and American culture,
-
12:57 - 13:00but he had no objection
to American dollars. -
13:00 - 13:02He was quite fond of them, actually.
-
13:02 - 13:04(Laughter)
-
13:04 - 13:06To conclude, then:
-
13:06 - 13:12We humans control the world
because we live in a dual reality. -
13:13 - 13:16All other animals live
in an objective reality. -
13:17 - 13:22Their reality consists
of objective entities, -
13:22 - 13:26like rivers and trees
and lions and elephants. -
13:26 - 13:30We humans, we also live
in an objective reality. -
13:30 - 13:35In our world, too, there are rivers
and trees and lions and elephants. -
13:35 - 13:37But over the centuries,
-
13:37 - 13:42we have constructed on top
of this objective reality -
13:42 - 13:46a second layer of fictional reality,
-
13:46 - 13:49a reality made of fictional entities,
-
13:49 - 13:54like nations, like gods,
like money, like corporations. -
13:54 - 13:59And what is amazing is that
as history unfolded, -
13:59 - 14:05this fictional reality became
more and more powerful -
14:05 - 14:09so that today, the most powerful
forces in the world -
14:09 - 14:11are these fictional entities.
-
14:12 - 14:19Today, the very survival of rivers
and trees and lions and elephants -
14:19 - 14:24depends on the decisions and wishes
of fictional entities, -
14:24 - 14:28like the United States, like Google,
like the World Bank -- -
14:28 - 14:32entities that exist only
in our own imagination. -
14:33 - 14:34Thank you.
-
14:34 - 14:39(Applause)
-
14:44 - 14:47Bruno Giussani: Yuval, you have
a new book out. -
14:47 - 14:48After Sapiens, you wrote another one,
-
14:48 - 14:51and it's out in Hebrew, but not
yet translated into ... -
14:51 - 14:54Yuval Noah Harari: I'm working on
the translation as we speak. -
14:54 - 14:56BG: In the book, if I
understand it correctly, -
14:56 - 15:02you argue that the amazing breakthroughs
that we are experiencing right now -
15:02 - 15:04not only will potentially
make our lives better, -
15:04 - 15:06but they will create -- and I quote you --
-
15:06 - 15:11"... new classes and new class struggles,
just as the industrial revolution did." -
15:11 - 15:12Can you elaborate for us?
-
15:13 - 15:15YNH: Yes. In the industrial revolution,
-
15:15 - 15:20we saw the creation of a new class
of the urban proletariat. -
15:20 - 15:25And much of the political and social
history of the last 200 years involved -
15:25 - 15:28what to do with this class,
and the new problems and opportunities. -
15:28 - 15:33Now, we see the creation of a new
massive class of useless people. -
15:33 - 15:34(Laughter)
-
15:34 - 15:39As computers become better and better
in more and more fields, -
15:39 - 15:44there is a distinct possibility that
computers will out-perform us -
15:44 - 15:48in most tasks and will make
humans redundant. -
15:48 - 15:51And then the big political
and economic question -
15:51 - 15:53of the 21st century will be,
-
15:53 - 15:55"What do we need humans for?",
-
15:55 - 15:59or at least, "What do we need
so many humans for?" -
15:59 - 16:01BG: Do you have an answer in the book?
-
16:01 - 16:05YNH: At present, the best guess
we have is to keep them happy -
16:05 - 16:07with drugs and computer games ...
-
16:07 - 16:08(Laughter)
-
16:08 - 16:11but this doesn't sound
like a very appealing future. -
16:11 - 16:14BG: Ok, so you're basically saying
in the book and now, -
16:14 - 16:17that for all the discussion
about the growing evidence -
16:17 - 16:21of significant economic inequality,
we are just kind of at the beginning -
16:21 - 16:22of the process?
-
16:22 - 16:24YNH: Again, it's not a prophecy;
-
16:24 - 16:28it's seeing all kinds
of possibilities before us. -
16:28 - 16:33One possibility is this creation
of a new massive class of useless people. -
16:33 - 16:36Another possibility is
the division of humankind -
16:36 - 16:39into different biological castes,
-
16:39 - 16:43with the rich being upgraded
into virtual gods, -
16:43 - 16:48and the poor being degraded
to this level of useless people. -
16:48 - 16:51BG: I feel there is another TED talk
coming up in a year or two. -
16:51 - 16:52Thank you, Yuval, for making the trip.
-
16:52 - 16:54YNH: Thanks!
-
16:54 - 16:55(Applause)
- Title:
- What explains the rise of humans?
- Speaker:
- Yuval Noah Harari
- Description:
-
Seventy-thousand years ago, our human ancestors were insignificant animals, just minding their own business in a corner of Africa with all the other animals. But now, few would disagree that humans dominate planet Earth; we've spread to every continent, and our actions determine the fate of other animals (and possibly Earth itself). How did we get from there to here? Historian Yuval Noah Harari suggests a surprising reason for the rise of humanity.
- Video Language:
- English
- Team:
- closed TED
- Project:
- TEDTalks
- Duration:
- 17:08
Brian Greene edited English subtitles for What explains the rise of humans? | ||
Brian Greene commented on English subtitles for What explains the rise of humans? | ||
Camille Martínez commented on English subtitles for What explains the rise of humans? | ||
Delia Bogdan commented on English subtitles for What explains the rise of humans? | ||
Delia Bogdan commented on English subtitles for What explains the rise of humans? | ||
Camille Martínez edited English subtitles for What explains the rise of humans? | ||
Camille Martínez edited English subtitles for What explains the rise of humans? | ||
Cynthia Betubiza edited English subtitles for What explains the rise of humans? |
Delia Bogdan
at 16:22 he sais: „Again: it's only prophecy".
Delia Bogdan
I think this is what he intended to say: "Again, it's just(only) an assumption (presumption)
It's about enumerating the possibilities,
from which one"...
Maybe this is due to the fact that he's not a native English speaker.
Camille Martínez
Hi Delia,
I've listened again and I do hear "...it's not a prophecy." Also, in terms of context, a prophecy would be a more of a specific prediction, but he goes on to give different possibilities, possible scenarios of what could potentially happen, though no one is sure at this moment how things will turn out.
But I will ask Brian Greene, the new Annotation + Transcription Editor, to come in and give it a listen, just to verify.
Thanks,
Camille
Brian Greene
Hi Della, Camille:
Thank you for bringing this to our attention!
I hear, "It's not a prophecy," and so I don't think this warrants a change.
Best,
Brian