[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:09.54,0:00:16.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Today, I am going to talk to you about \Nlimits with a question mark.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:16.30,0:00:17.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Are there limits?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:17.78,0:00:21.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I am going to use two examples.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:21.87,0:00:27.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One is the orbiting and landing \Nof an asteroid with NEAR spacecraft.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:27.25,0:00:31.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,NEAR stands for \NNear-Earth-Asteroid-Rendezvous.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:31.07,0:00:36.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the other is exiting \Nthe solar system with Voyager.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:37.01,0:00:38.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is the kind of thing
Dialogue: 0,0:00:38.78,0:00:42.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that is very much in line with \Nthe theme of Uncharted Waters,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:42.89,0:00:46.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which, of course, is the theme \Nof this conference.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:48.38,0:00:52.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You know that we don't know \Na lot about asteroids,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:52.45,0:00:56.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we certainly did not \Nfifteen years ago.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:56.21,0:00:59.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We didn't know \Nif they were a solid body
Dialogue: 0,0:00:59.74,0:01:02.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or a rubble pile, a bunch of rocks.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:02.04,0:01:04.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Are they moving together in space?
Dialogue: 0,0:01:04.62,0:01:08.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the idea is to leave Earth\Nand go and orbit an asteroid
Dialogue: 0,0:01:11.72,0:01:13.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is typically not spherical, by the way.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:13.89,0:01:17.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And nobody had orbited \Na non-spherical body.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:18.46,0:01:24.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, asteroids, there are lot of them
Dialogue: 0,0:01:24.76,0:01:28.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that go orbiting in the vicinity of Earth.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:28.15,0:01:31.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As you can see here is the orbit of Mars
Dialogue: 0,0:01:31.22,0:01:32.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and here is the orbit of Earth,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:32.86,0:01:36.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and these are a few of the asteroids
Dialogue: 0,0:01:36.12,0:01:38.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that cross the path of Earth.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:38.91,0:01:41.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And, of course, we have been lucky
Dialogue: 0,0:01:41.34,0:01:43.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we haven't had too many collisions.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:43.84,0:01:47.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There have been collisions\Nas I am sure you have heard.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:47.16,0:01:50.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the idea is to go to one of these,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:50.28,0:01:53.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,orbit it and study it \Nfor a long period of time.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:53.28,0:01:56.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,To do that you need the spacecraft.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:56.28,0:02:03.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We started the work two months \Nbefore this picture was taken.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:03.00,0:02:08.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You see the spacecraft on top\Nof what we called a shake-table.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:08.29,0:02:12.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Which means that we take \Nthe spacecraft, once it is finished,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:12.84,0:02:15.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then we vibrate it to a level
Dialogue: 0,0:02:15.84,0:02:18.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which it is going to experience
Dialogue: 0,0:02:18.19,0:02:20.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as it goes up on top of the rocket,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:20.82,0:02:23.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,through the atmosphere \Nand then into space.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:23.46,0:02:27.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it better survive that, \Notherwise it will not work.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:27.67,0:02:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, that's what we did.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:31.11,0:02:34.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The spacecraft and we moved \Non to Cape Canaveral.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:34.55,0:02:38.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We put it on top of the rocket, \Nas you can see here,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:38.75,0:02:44.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you can also see \Nthere is a protective shell
Dialogue: 0,0:02:44.24,0:02:47.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is called the heat-seal
Dialogue: 0,0:02:47.18,0:02:50.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,simply because it protects \Nthe spacecraft
Dialogue: 0,0:02:50.44,0:02:54.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as the rocket moves through \Nthe atmosphere at a very high rate.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:54.71,0:02:56.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Buzzing sound)
Dialogue: 0,0:02:56.05,0:02:59.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is sort of my last walk
Dialogue: 0,0:02:59.01,0:03:04.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,through the tower \Nthat surrounds the rocket.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:04.66,0:03:10.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the way, the young lady that you see\Nis the first program manager
Dialogue: 0,0:03:10.89,0:03:14.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that I appointed \Nto a NASA planetary mission.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.42,0:03:21.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I am very proud \Nof having worked with ladies
Dialogue: 0,0:03:21.12,0:03:25.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who really know how to do it.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:25.63,0:03:28.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)
Dialogue: 0,0:03:28.99,0:03:32.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So this is the rocket and \Nyou can see the exhaust,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:32.20,0:03:35.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's a little bigger \Nthan your car exhaust.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:35.23,0:03:38.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These are just the solid rockets
Dialogue: 0,0:03:38.43,0:03:41.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that surround \Nthe main body of the rocket.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:41.48,0:03:46.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then, of course, when \Nthe fuel is exhausted from these,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:46.97,0:03:53.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they fall off and then we go on\Nto the next main tank of the rocket
Dialogue: 0,0:03:53.07,0:03:54.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it goes up.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:54.36,0:03:55.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This lasted a long time
Dialogue: 0,0:03:55.79,0:04:01.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so I am not going to tell you a lot more\Nand spend time on it.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:01.08,0:04:06.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Finally we launched on February of 1996.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:06.06,0:04:09.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What you see in this ...
Dialogue: 0,0:04:10.62,0:04:14.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is Eros, this is the asteroid.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:14.13,0:04:17.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We put the spacecraft around it into orbit,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:17.69,0:04:23.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it rotated every \Nabout 6 1/2 hours, or so.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:23.09,0:04:25.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the spacecraft is rotating
Dialogue: 0,0:04:25.23,0:04:28.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and watches the asteroid \Nas it rotates around.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:28.23,0:04:30.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Getting there, of course, \Nwasn't simple.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:30.38,0:04:35.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we launched and then we went
Dialogue: 0,0:04:35.02,0:04:38.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by the asteroid Mathilde in 1997.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:38.30,0:04:42.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We came back to Earth \Nto change the plane of the orbit
Dialogue: 0,0:04:42.37,0:04:46.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so that we could match \Nthe trajectory of the asteroid.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:46.80,0:04:52.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then, something happened
Dialogue: 0,0:04:52.34,0:04:55.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just before we were \Nready to get into orbit.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:55.54,0:04:58.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That is, we fired the onboard rocket
Dialogue: 0,0:04:58.32,0:05:00.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we lost the spacecraft.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:00.97,0:05:06.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,No communication\Nfor almost 24 hours.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:06.98,0:05:08.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's the worst thing.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:08.95,0:05:11.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It can ruin your whole day\Nwhen you are in this business.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:11.73,0:05:12.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:05:12.85,0:05:17.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But fortunately we had built \Nenough redundancy into the system
Dialogue: 0,0:05:17.38,0:05:21.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that 24 hours later \Nwe got a weak signal
Dialogue: 0,0:05:21.86,0:05:24.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we got the control \Nof the spacecraft again.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:24.95,0:05:26.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We found out what happened,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:26.43,0:05:30.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it turned out that the two computers \Non board had a disagreement.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:30.02,0:05:35.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The spacecraft computers couldn't \Nagree with propulsion in engine computer
Dialogue: 0,0:05:35.13,0:05:37.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we got in trouble.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:37.20,0:05:38.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We lost some fuel.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:38.83,0:05:46.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We went around the Sun once more \Nand finally we got into orbit.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:46.13,0:05:50.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As we were approaching Eros, the asteroid,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:50.52,0:05:55.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on February 12, two days \Nbefore Valentine's day, mind you.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:55.26,0:05:57.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here was the picture,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:57.72,0:06:00.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it looked like a heart.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:02.05,0:06:04.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Of course we knew \Nit was an optical illusion
Dialogue: 0,0:06:04.62,0:06:07.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and, of course, \Nwe never published the picture
Dialogue: 0,0:06:07.20,0:06:08.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because we would get \Ninto all kind of trouble.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:08.87,0:06:13.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when we got close, \Nas you will see,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:13.15,0:06:16.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what happened is that \Nyou had these three craters
Dialogue: 0,0:06:16.87,0:06:20.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that were arranged in a triangle,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:20.45,0:06:27.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they looked with \Na kind of Sun angle and the shade,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:27.87,0:06:30.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it looked like a heart from a distance.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:30.55,0:06:34.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, that is the kind of stuff \Nthat you see in the tabloids
Dialogue: 0,0:06:34.60,0:06:37.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that in the United States \Nwe pick out in supermarkets.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:37.36,0:06:39.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Supermarket counters.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:39.58,0:06:41.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You know ... "Heart on Eros" ...
Dialogue: 0,0:06:41.80,0:06:44.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So much for that.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:44.76,0:06:55.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was big news that a NASA spacecraft \Norbited an asteroid on February 12.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:55.59,0:06:59.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,CNN is very loud everywhere it goes,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:59.39,0:07:01.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,including the United States.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:01.42,0:07:03.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(CNN Speaker): A close encounter
Dialogue: 0,0:07:03.18,0:07:05.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,between a NASA satellite and an asteroid.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:05.80,0:07:09.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,An unmanned spacecraft is now \Nin orbit around an asteroid.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:09.65,0:07:12.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's supposed to teach us \Nabout these giant rocks,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:12.11,0:07:14.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and perhaps help scientists to figure out
Dialogue: 0,0:07:14.22,0:07:16.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how to protect us from a possible collision.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:21.10,0:07:23.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That is our Trajectory Manager
Dialogue: 0,0:07:23.76,0:07:28.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who was making, he and his team, \Nmost of the calculation.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:28.66,0:07:36.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(CNN Video)
Dialogue: 0,0:07:36.07,0:07:39.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this is the Senator of Maryland.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:39.59,0:07:43.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And now I am showing you \Nthe next episode,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:43.39,0:07:46.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,after we were in orbit for a year.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:46.11,0:07:50.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We had charted the entire asteroid.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:50.30,0:07:54.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We were familiar \Nwith every little corner
Dialogue: 0,0:07:54.27,0:07:55.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and every little crater.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:55.93,0:07:58.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we just had a little bit of fuel left.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:58.92,0:08:00.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we said, "What are \Nwe going to do now?"
Dialogue: 0,0:08:00.66,0:08:07.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because to maintain a spacecraft\Nin orbit around an asteroid
Dialogue: 0,0:08:07.05,0:08:09.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that has this kind of shape, \Nlike a potato,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:09.86,0:08:14.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's very hard and you have \Nto really keep pushing
Dialogue: 0,0:08:14.24,0:08:17.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and adjusting the orbit by using fuel.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:17.85,0:08:20.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we were at the end of the fuel.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:20.22,0:08:24.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So what would happen is that \Nthe spacecraft would drift away.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:24.61,0:08:27.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So what we did is, I went to NASA
Dialogue: 0,0:08:27.72,0:08:31.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and persuaded the administrator that
Dialogue: 0,0:08:31.05,0:08:39.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we were going to try to easy down\Non the surface of the asteroid.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:39.94,0:08:44.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He eventually agreed to let us do it.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:44.53,0:08:50.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the day came, again it was \Nas I mentioned the year later.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:50.38,0:08:55.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We had already calculated what \Nthe trajectory was going to be like.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:55.68,0:09:01.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What you see here is \Nthe calculated trajectory,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:01.12,0:09:03.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,[it] is the black line.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:03.05,0:09:06.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the points are the real-time data.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:06.19,0:09:08.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We had the laser altimeter \Nthat measured
Dialogue: 0,0:09:08.96,0:09:10.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the distance of the spacecraft \Nfrom the ground
Dialogue: 0,0:09:10.79,0:09:13.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by signing a laser, \Ngetting the reflection
Dialogue: 0,0:09:13.20,0:09:16.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and measuring the distance with \Nthe precision of about a centimeter.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:16.92,0:09:19.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we knew what was happening.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:19.56,0:09:25.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we figured that it would take about \N45 minutes to get down to the ground.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:25.56,0:09:29.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It seemed like it was going very well.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:29.34,0:09:33.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I will show you a simulation\Nof what we had done
Dialogue: 0,0:09:33.26,0:09:36.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with the spacecraft as you see it.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:36.76,0:09:41.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in fact, the spacecraft landed
Dialogue: 0,0:09:41.91,0:09:45.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with the solar panels pointing \Nin the direction of the Sun,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:45.15,0:09:47.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with the antenna pointing \Nin the direction of Earth,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:47.73,0:09:49.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we kept getting data.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:49.70,0:09:51.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it went on for a number of days.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:51.72,0:09:57.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What you see is the pictures \Nthat were taken by the spacecraft
Dialogue: 0,0:09:57.90,0:10:02.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as it was moving into closer \Nand closer to the surface of Eros.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:02.88,0:10:10.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And at the end we had a resolution\Nwhich was actually quite good.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:10.48,0:10:14.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can see here, \Nthis is the last image we had.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:14.38,0:10:18.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can discriminate and see rocks
Dialogue: 0,0:10:18.28,0:10:22.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that were of the order \Nof a few centimeters across.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:22.79,0:10:25.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, that wasn't all.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:26.48,0:10:28.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We had the opportunity \Nto do other things.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:28.75,0:10:33.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is the announcement \Nthat we had actually landed.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:33.12,0:10:38.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And Mr.Goldin, who was \Nthe NASA administrator at the time,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:38.78,0:10:42.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was exceptionally anxious because
Dialogue: 0,0:10:42.53,0:10:46.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,NASA had just crashed \Na spacecraft on Mars a month before.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:46.41,0:10:50.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And he was very worried about \Nwhat was going to happen,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:50.93,0:10:54.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if this happened again, \Nto NASA's reputation.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:54.18,0:10:56.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But he was very happy.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:56.65,0:11:01.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Then, I wanted to show you \Nanother thing, here,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:01.66,0:11:05.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about the details of the surface.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:05.00,0:11:07.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There is a crater
Dialogue: 0,0:11:07.18,0:11:10.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the International Astronomical Union
Dialogue: 0,0:11:10.58,0:11:14.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in its wisdom decided to name Hios,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:14.87,0:11:18.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which was the love child of \NPoseidon and the nymph Hiona.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:18.72,0:11:23.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we have a crater on Eros \Nby the name of Hios.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:24.48,0:11:27.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Nothing to do with the fact \Nthat I am from Chios, mind you.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:27.16,0:11:29.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:11:30.22,0:11:37.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The most important thing, however, \Nis that we finished the project
Dialogue: 0,0:11:37.35,0:11:39.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we didn't spend all the money.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:39.67,0:11:44.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Which had never happened \Nin the history of NASA.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:44.48,0:11:47.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We had a little ceremony,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:47.28,0:11:52.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the down payment to NASA of\Nthe remainder of 3.6 million dollars.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:52.39,0:11:55.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the end we gave them \Nback about 30 million.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:55.09,0:11:59.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Needless to say, we got a lot of abuse\Nfrom my other colleagues at NASA centers
Dialogue: 0,0:11:59.80,0:12:02.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who said, "You never give back \Nmoney to the government.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:02.46,0:12:04.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Shame on you", and so and so .
Dialogue: 0,0:12:04.02,0:12:06.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But we overcame.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:06.86,0:12:10.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now let me tell you about the other part
Dialogue: 0,0:12:10.60,0:12:14.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the things that go \Non uncharted waters.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:14.83,0:12:19.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What you see here is \Na view of the solar system.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:19.32,0:12:21.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Each one of our planets \Nof the solar system
Dialogue: 0,0:12:21.94,0:12:25.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,has already been imaged by spacecrafts.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:25.71,0:12:28.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The four planets you see here,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:28.04,0:12:30.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
Dialogue: 0,0:12:30.31,0:12:34.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are all, of course, pictures \Nfrom the Voyager mission.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:34.19,0:12:39.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Voyager mission started \Nin 1977, ladies and gentlemen.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:39.40,0:12:43.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was 36 years ago, \Nin a couple of months.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:43.73,0:12:49.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The original plan was to go \Nto Jupiter and to Saturn.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:49.99,0:12:53.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was going to be a four year mission.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:53.16,0:12:55.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But then it turned out that it was possible
Dialogue: 0,0:12:55.49,0:13:00.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,using gravity assist \Nfrom Jupiter to go on to Saturn,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:00.02,0:13:01.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but then also using gravity assist
Dialogue: 0,0:13:01.87,0:13:03.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from Saturn to go on to Uranus
Dialogue: 0,0:13:03.71,0:13:05.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and from Uranus to Neptune.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:05.56,0:13:08.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's exactly what \Nwe did with Voyager 2
Dialogue: 0,0:13:08.27,0:13:12.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while we sent Voyager 1 \Naway from the Sun
Dialogue: 0,0:13:12.33,0:13:14.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and towards the north ecliptic.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:15.36,0:13:22.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That was a very well planned program,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:22.18,0:13:27.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it worked well, it provided \Nessentially all new information.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:27.04,0:13:28.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I just want to show you
Dialogue: 0,0:13:28.54,0:13:33.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the spacecraft which \Nis about this size.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:33.97,0:13:36.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is the antenna,\Nit points in the direction of Earth.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:36.71,0:13:38.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It transmits information.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:38.48,0:13:42.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These here is the instrument \Nfrom my team.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:43.03,0:13:45.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I am pointing it out loud
Dialogue: 0,0:13:45.28,0:13:50.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it did some other things \Nthat we were very proud of.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:51.10,0:13:53.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I am showing you this picture
Dialogue: 0,0:13:53.41,0:13:59.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with President Herbert Walker Bush.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:59.77,0:14:03.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Not the new one,\Nnot the son, the father.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:03.32,0:14:06.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He had a lot of brains, the father.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:06.12,0:14:07.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:14:07.36,0:14:12.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He invited us to the White House
Dialogue: 0,0:14:12.42,0:14:17.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as had done Mr. Reagan before him.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:17.14,0:14:20.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I am showing you \Nthat simply because
Dialogue: 0,0:14:20.46,0:14:27.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to point out that the American \Ngovernment, the politicians,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:27.76,0:14:32.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,really appreciate what science \Ndoes for the country.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:32.79,0:14:34.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it is not just NASA,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:34.96,0:14:37.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's the National Institute of Health,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:37.02,0:14:39.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's all kind of national science foundations.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:39.85,0:14:42.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they show it. Effectively.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:42.96,0:14:44.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,With this kind of things,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:44.32,0:14:47.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by inviting us to lunch, \Nand things like that.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:47.75,0:14:53.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Anyway. This, after Voyager went \Npast all these four planets.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:53.49,0:14:56.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a simulation, \Nthat I am showing you,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:56.79,0:14:59.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where it was moving away \Nfrom the Sun
Dialogue: 0,0:14:59.73,0:15:03.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,passed the last planet, \Nthe orbit of Pluto.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:03.62,0:15:05.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we expected that someday
Dialogue: 0,0:15:05.98,0:15:08.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we were going to run into this boundary
Dialogue: 0,0:15:08.99,0:15:12.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then eventually \Ncross another boundary
Dialogue: 0,0:15:12.59,0:15:15.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that would lead us into the galaxy.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:15.40,0:15:20.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The problem was that nobody knew\Nhow far these boundaries were.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:20.48,0:15:23.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We were sort of going in blind.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:23.02,0:15:26.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There were suggestions that it could be
Dialogue: 0,0:15:26.41,0:15:29.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a year away, five years away,\Nten years away.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:29.69,0:15:31.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Nobody really knew.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:32.51,0:15:35.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, how to find it out?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:35.14,0:15:38.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We had four instruments \Nthat were working.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:38.12,0:15:43.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is the one that I pointed out \Nbefore, our team had built.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:43.79,0:15:45.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And another thing that we did
Dialogue: 0,0:15:45.62,0:15:47.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is to put a little stepper motor
Dialogue: 0,0:15:47.72,0:15:51.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that rotated the entire platform \Nback and forth.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:51.02,0:15:53.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I'll show you a very short video.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:53.76,0:15:54.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Buzzing sound)
Dialogue: 0,0:15:54.87,0:15:59.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That is the kind of sound it made \Nin the laboratory, when it rotated.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:59.68,0:16:03.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I did this little video for the press
Dialogue: 0,0:16:03.48,0:16:08.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,right after the Neptune encounter.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:08.92,0:16:13.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I did have hair at one time, you noticed? \N(Laughter).
Dialogue: 0,0:16:13.94,0:16:18.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We had this little stepper motor
Dialogue: 0,0:16:18.09,0:16:19.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that was rotating the detectors.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:19.92,0:16:22.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Just like this simulation shows.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:22.93,0:16:24.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you see the colors here.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:24.50,0:16:28.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can't see them \Nbecause of these lights.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:28.06,0:16:32.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But by rotating around \Nit was possible for us
Dialogue: 0,0:16:32.99,0:16:40.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to measure the speed and the direction \Nof the hot wind from the Sun,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:40.63,0:16:48.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which moves at the speed of about\N1.5 million Km per hour.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:48.33,0:16:51.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, you say, "OK, you told us \Nabout these instruments,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:51.36,0:16:54.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what did you find by rotating this?"
Dialogue: 0,0:16:54.59,0:16:55.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What we found...
Dialogue: 0,0:16:55.68,0:16:59.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here it is, we kept going \Nand going and going.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:59.36,0:17:02.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The idea was that once \Nwe cross this boundary
Dialogue: 0,0:17:02.68,0:17:04.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we would be out in the galaxy.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:04.69,0:17:08.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What we found instead\Nis that we ran into a place
Dialogue: 0,0:17:08.72,0:17:14.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where the solar wind no longer\Nmoved away from the Sun.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:14.06,0:17:18.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we called that \Nthe Stagnation Region.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:18.21,0:17:21.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We published it in 2011.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:21.84,0:17:24.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was not predicted by theory.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:24.68,0:17:30.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,However some models were suggesting \Nthat what happens to this wind
Dialogue: 0,0:17:30.02,0:17:34.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that it goes to the north direction\Ntowards the ecliptic pole.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:34.91,0:17:38.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Our instrument, however, \Nwas only rotating in one plane
Dialogue: 0,0:17:38.88,0:17:42.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we couldn't measure \Nthe speed up and down.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:42.27,0:17:45.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, I asked the engineering team,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:45.70,0:17:50.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I said "Why don't we turn the spacecraft \N90 degrees, now and then?
Dialogue: 0,0:17:50.90,0:17:53.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then we can measure \Nthe north-south direction."
Dialogue: 0,0:17:53.68,0:17:56.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Mind you, this is a spacecraft
Dialogue: 0,0:17:56.25,0:18:01.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that had been in space \Nfor 34 years already.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:01.16,0:18:05.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it is just like getting \Na dog that's about to die
Dialogue: 0,0:18:05.08,0:18:07.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,trying to teach him new tricks.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:07.38,0:18:09.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,However, what happened is
Dialogue: 0,0:18:09.68,0:18:13.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we were able \Nto send the commands,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:13.33,0:18:14.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and by guiding the spacecraft
Dialogue: 0,0:18:14.92,0:18:18.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it executed every command perfectly.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:18.10,0:18:21.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And for two years we have been \Ndoing this every two months.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:21.84,0:18:24.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We rotated the spacecraft \Nin this direction.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:24.69,0:18:28.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What we found out is that, in fact,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:28.22,0:18:30.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,even this model was also wrong.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:30.46,0:18:34.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There was no flow of the wind \Nin the north direction
Dialogue: 0,0:18:34.02,0:18:36.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or in the south direction \Nfor that matter.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:36.09,0:18:39.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So theory failed us again.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:40.42,0:18:44.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We actually wrote this up\Nand were publishing it
Dialogue: 0,0:18:44.87,0:18:50.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until we found something very strange\Nthat happened last year.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:50.84,0:18:53.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What you see here,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:53.50,0:18:56.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it is the only data that I will show you,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:56.94,0:19:01.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is the curve for cosmic rays, the intensity.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:01.70,0:19:09.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you see that they started increasing\Nright about early May of 2012.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:10.01,0:19:12.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These are the so-called \NGalactic Cosmic Rays.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:12.83,0:19:18.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These are particles that were actually \Ngenerated by explosions of Supernovae
Dialogue: 0,0:19:18.68,0:19:21.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,millions of years ago\Nin the vicinity of the Sun,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:21.90,0:19:25.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and were coming from outside \Nthe galaxy into our solar system.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:25.94,0:19:28.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they began to go up.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:28.12,0:19:32.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then, eventually, \Nat about the same time,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:32.92,0:19:35.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,after two or three increases,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:35.71,0:19:38.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the material that was coming from the Sun,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:38.87,0:19:43.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,never mind what these are, protons and \Nheliums and what we have here, oxygen  
Dialogue: 0,0:19:43.42,0:19:45.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,dropped at the same time.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:45.15,0:19:48.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In other words, \Nthe solar material disappears
Dialogue: 0,0:19:48.29,0:19:50.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the stuff that was supposed to be coming
Dialogue: 0,0:19:50.55,0:19:52.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from outside the galaxy \N-- that's what we believed --
Dialogue: 0,0:19:52.93,0:19:55.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,appeared and increased.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:55.79,0:20:01.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we said, "Aha! We actually got out of \Nthe solar system and into the galaxy!"
Dialogue: 0,0:20:02.02,0:20:03.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But we lacked some data.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:03.89,0:20:06.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a picture from a press event
Dialogue: 0,0:20:06.56,0:20:10.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at the Jet Propulsion \NLaboratory in Pasadena.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:10.22,0:20:13.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We were trying to interpret the data
Dialogue: 0,0:20:13.27,0:20:16.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a few days after \Nwe had made that observation.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:16.76,0:20:20.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here we have the model \Nof the spacecraft.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:20.09,0:20:23.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But we didn't have \Nall the data that we needed.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:23.53,0:20:28.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Namely, we couldn't measure the density\Nof the atmosphere of the galaxy,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:28.28,0:20:30.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if I can put it that way.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:30.47,0:20:35.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Until April of this year.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:35.14,0:20:36.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I don't know if you can hear the sound,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:36.69,0:20:39.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,maybe you can turn it up a little bit?
Dialogue: 0,0:20:39.88,0:20:41.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Whistling sound)
Dialogue: 0,0:20:41.30,0:20:44.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,OK. Now, what are these,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:44.75,0:20:49.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is, we have some antennas on the spacecraft.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:49.01,0:20:52.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in the vicinity of the spacecraft\Nsomething happened
Dialogue: 0,0:20:52.66,0:20:56.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and all these electrons \Nbegan to oscillate back and forth.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:56.01,0:20:57.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When the electrons oscillate \Nin a magnetic field
Dialogue: 0,0:20:57.96,0:20:59.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they produce sounds.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:59.79,0:21:02.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when they produce this sound
Dialogue: 0,0:21:02.36,0:21:07.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we are able to determine \Nthe density of the material
Dialogue: 0,0:21:07.09,0:21:08.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,around the spacecraft.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:08.48,0:21:13.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What you see here is that \Nwe were able to determine
Dialogue: 0,0:21:13.42,0:21:17.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it was 0.1 per cubic centimeter.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:17.77,0:21:19.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You would say, \N"What does that mean?"
Dialogue: 0,0:21:19.35,0:21:24.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, it was 50 times \Nwhat we had before.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:24.05,0:21:28.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When we were in the solar wind,\Ninside our solar atmosphere.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:28.78,0:21:31.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And because most models predict
Dialogue: 0,0:21:31.57,0:21:35.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the density in the galaxy is about 0.1,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:35.33,0:21:38.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we knew that we had actually arrived.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:38.86,0:21:46.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, we had a meeting at my lab\Nback in Johns Hopkins in September.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:46.52,0:21:50.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We looked at all the data \Nand we finally decided
Dialogue: 0,0:21:50.09,0:21:53.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it was safe \Nto issue a press release
Dialogue: 0,0:21:53.59,0:21:59.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that actually we had crossed
Dialogue: 0,0:21:59.13,0:22:05.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the boundary with the galaxy\Non August 25 of 2012.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:05.69,0:22:09.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, think about this:
Dialogue: 0,0:22:09.10,0:22:11.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a hundred and ten years ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:11.78,0:22:14.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it was when the Wright brothers
Dialogue: 0,0:22:14.88,0:22:19.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,flew a... you could call it an airplane
Dialogue: 0,0:22:19.07,0:22:21.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-- that's what they called it --
Dialogue: 0,0:22:21.88,0:22:25.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at an altitude of few meters\Nfor about 30 seconds.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:25.22,0:22:28.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then about 50 years later
Dialogue: 0,0:22:28.66,0:22:33.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there was the launch \Nof the first Earth satellite, Sputnik.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:33.53,0:22:38.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It went outside the Earth's \Natmosphere for the first time ever
Dialogue: 0,0:22:38.42,0:22:42.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in our history, in humanity's history.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:42.19,0:22:49.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it got to an altitude \Nof 946 km, to be exact.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:49.11,0:22:54.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then another 55, or so, years later,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:54.93,0:22:58.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we had the exit of the first \Nspacecraft, Voyager 1
Dialogue: 0,0:22:58.73,0:23:07.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from the atmosphere of the Sun\Nat an altitude of 18.2 billion kilometers.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:07.60,0:23:09.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,To give you an idea:
Dialogue: 0,0:23:09.48,0:23:12.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the signal that we get from Voyager,
Dialogue: 0,0:23:12.19,0:23:15.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when it leaves Voyager, \Nit travels with the speed of light,
Dialogue: 0,0:23:15.13,0:23:20.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it takes 17 hours and 20 minutes\Nto get from there to Earth.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:20.15,0:23:24.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The light from the Sun to come to Earth\Nonly takes 8 1/2 minutes.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:24.31,0:23:27.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So you can imagine \Nhow far this spacecraft is.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:27.55,0:23:31.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,To give you the bottom line, so to speak.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:31.99,0:23:35.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here we are. \NVoyager 1 is in the galaxy.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:35.02,0:23:38.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Voyager 2 is not there yet, \Nit is a little slower,
Dialogue: 0,0:23:38.21,0:23:42.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so we expect it will go out at some point.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:43.59,0:23:48.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Finally, I can imagine that \Nthere was a rooster there
Dialogue: 0,0:23:48.09,0:23:50.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that said "People of Earth, \Nwelcome to the galaxy!",
Dialogue: 0,0:23:50.70,0:23:52.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:23:52.38,0:23:55.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on August 25, 2012.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:56.39,0:24:01.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I posed the question in the beginning: \N"Are there limits?"
Dialogue: 0,0:24:01.23,0:24:06.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I think you can imagine that my answer \Nto that is "No, of course no."
Dialogue: 0,0:24:06.90,0:24:12.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I think limits constrain our imagination
Dialogue: 0,0:24:12.31,0:24:16.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and retard progress, I think.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:16.10,0:24:20.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, we don't need any limits.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:20.26,0:24:21.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And there are none.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:21.55,0:24:23.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you very much.
Dialogue: 0,0:24:23.13,0:24:31.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)