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Ladies and gentlemen, as Paul [said],

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my hobby, and at the same time
profession, is physics.

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And this is, for me,
a very lucky coincidence.

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And I think, as Democritus once said,

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I can also repeat now,

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that I would rather prefer
to discover one causal law

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than be King of Persia.

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And I am pretty sure
there is a lot of phenomena

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awaiting our discovery...

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Oh, let me know... Yeah, it's working.

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[Phenomena] which are occurring,
perhaps, even now, here,

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but we do not recognize them.

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And I have my personal proof for that,

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at least it is convincing [to] me.

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That was an astonishment
I experienced once,

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when working at this nice,
and even cozy accelerator,

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when a friend of mine
came to my office, and...

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(Phone rings twice)

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And something like that happened,
and then he [said],

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"Please pick it up,
because this is an external call."

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So I excused [myself] for a moment,

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and then it was, indeed, an external call.

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And then I asked him,
"How do you know that?"

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And this was the explanation.

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This was the external call...
(Phone rings twice)

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And this is an internal call.
(Phone rings once)

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(Laughter)

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Many of you are also working
in institutions,

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you recognize that, perhaps.

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I [had been] working there for many years,

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in that office, and didn't realize that.

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(Laughter)

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And this was...

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I learned a good lesson of humility.

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A painful lesson for the researcher

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whose ambition is to [discover], say,

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less trivial things than that.

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(Laughter)

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So... (Laughter)

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But this also gave me a promise

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that there is a chance
to discover something --

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(Laughter)

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[Something] I didn't notice till now.

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And today,
I would like to tell you a story

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more successful, for me, at least,

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about antimatter-based molecular imaging
of the whole human body.

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So, what do I mean by that?

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So I would like to tell you
about an idea, or invention.

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About a cylinder,

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a device which [will] one day
perhaps surround a person.

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And with that device, I hope,
we will be able, in the future,

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to make tomographic images,

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non-invasive pictures of the human body,

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of the whole human body.

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So perhaps a less scientific topic

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of my presentation today could be:

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"How I have reinvented the cylinder."

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But now, after you laughed truly

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when Charles Crawford
was showing a formula,

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I think I'm obliged now to give a lesson,

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before we go farther
off solid-state physics,

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atomic physics, nuclear physics,

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and then, at the end, particle physics.

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That's all we need to understand
the rest of the talk.

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(Laughter)

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But... (Laughter)

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Then, [looking at] some of you,

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I see colleagues from my institute [here],

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younger, [who] have perhaps
already attended such lectures.

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I will [do] this in a way I'm sure
none of you have [been] shown,

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because I would like to start from --

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I should point it here --

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from the bush I made
a photo of in my garden.

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So, as a researcher,
you might put [your] head inside it,

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and then you recognize
there is a lot of fruits there.

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But with a scope,
perhaps you could go farther.

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And now, let us skip molecular physics.

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These fruits are surely from molecules,

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and the molecules are from atoms.

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(Laughter)

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(Applause)

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So, now...(Applause)

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Now we are already
at atomic physics, and this is, now --

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(Laughter)

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[It's] very important to recognize that --

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and this is really important
for the rest of the talk --

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that this is not to scale,
and I could not --

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(Laughter)

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[I] could not plot it to scale,

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because the nucleus is much smaller,

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in comparison to the size of the atom.

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And that is why some of the particles

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can just traverse through
the human body, or through matter,

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if they are energetic enough.

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And then, in the next [figure],

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let us go to nuclear physics.

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This is the nucleus.

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And then, quickly, to particle physics.

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The nucleus is [composed of] quarks.

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And now, going back
to the word "antimatter,"

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now [we have] really come to the point.

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There are also quarks and anti-quarks.

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So, they are the objects
which I am really studying

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in my daily life.

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[They] are called mesons,
not important for this talk,

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but I am doing that
so I had to mention that.

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(Laughter)

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And mesons are built
out of matter and antimatter.

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So they only live [a very short time].

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If that quark and anti-quark
touch each other,

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it disappears in the form of energy.

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And now, for the imaging,
we need something similar.

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But we cannot have a meson
in the laboratory,

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because it lives [only] for a while,

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not worth mentioning.

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But there is another source of antimatter
that we [do] have in the laboratories,

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in most nuclear physics laboratories,

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which [are] the isotopes,

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the atoms, or substances,
like fluorine, like oxygen,

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but which can radioactively decay.

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And this we all know.

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But there is one radioactive decay
which is very special.

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Which out of those three [types],

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Alpha, Beta and Gamma,

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Beta is the most mysterious one,
or the most mystic.

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And this is like that.

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One of the nucleons inside the nucleus,

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decays, as it was shown here.

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Oh, let me come back.

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To an anti-electron, it is e+ here.

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It's not an electron,
but an anti-electron.

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The electron has a "minus."

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And this is an anti-electron.

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This is something which,

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if it touched the electron,

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then annihilation [would] occur,

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and you would have energy.

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So now, which is already used
in the world,

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you can cheat a little,

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and make, for example, radioactive sugar,

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instead of usual sugar.

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The radioactive sugar is just sugar,

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made, for example, with fluorine,

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but instead of usual fluorine,

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you take radioactive fluorine,

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which then emits positrons,

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those anti-electrons.

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And you [can] administer that
to the patient

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like you see in that picture.

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And then, all the processes with the sugar

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which occur in the body,

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are exactly the same
as with the usual sugar,

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but from time to time you have a signal

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from the interior of the body,

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because this decay happens there.

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And now, if you look --

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If this decay happens somewhere,

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you have this anti-electron.

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If it touches the electron --

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we are in the first order,

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from electrons and those nuclei,
nothing else.

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So if it touches this electron,

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then they annihilate,
because it was matter and antimatter.

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And those two photons,

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two gamma quanta,

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are flying in a line,
apart from each other.

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And they are energetic,

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energetic enough to go through atoms.

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So they can go outside of the body.

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And now, we are close
to the explanation of that word.

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So we had a positron,

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we had emission,

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and now we have detectors,

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so we have Positron Emission Tomography,

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with those detectors.

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Now it's enough to put [detectors]
around the human body,

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which are capable of detecting
those gamma quanta.

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And you can [take] a picture
of the interior of the body,

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or [first of all],
you can [take] a picture

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of where those sugars were distributed
around the organism.

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And now, you may wonder
how one can do that.

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I have an easy example, the simplest one.

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Let's assume [all] the sugar administered

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was just absorbed
in one place in the brain.

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Let's say that that [unfortunate] person
had a [tumor],

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and this was absorbed
really point-like, in one place.

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Then, it's very easy to imagine
how you can [take] a picture

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of that brain, or that point,

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Because what we measure...
(Shutter sound)

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Let's say those points,
those blue rectangles, are detectors.

191
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Something which can register.

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OK, a bulb.

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If you put a current into the bulb,
then you see the light.

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If you put the light to the detectors,
you see the current.

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Shall I say, it's an anti-bulb.

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So what [do] we have? We...

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We [administered] a sugar,

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then that sugar is sometimes
decaying somewhere.

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In that case, it's always decaying here.

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And we measured the signal here and here.

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There is a lot of cables there.

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But we know it was here and here.

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So what we do is to plot a line.

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00:10:02,627 --> 00:10:06,663
But we don't know [where]
this sugar was, along this line.

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00:10:06,805 --> 00:10:09,880
But it's of course decaying
in different directions. (Shutter sound)

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00:10:09,905 --> 00:10:12,617
So it's enough to have
two such lines, (Shutter sound)

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00:10:12,642 --> 00:10:13,898
and you know the point.

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00:10:14,602 --> 00:10:16,536
So now it's very easy to imagine

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that you can [take] such a picture
of the [whole] body.

210
00:10:20,186 --> 00:10:22,676
OK, it's not as easy
as I plot it now, but...

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00:10:22,701 --> 00:10:24,389
(Laughter)

212
00:10:24,748 --> 00:10:26,568
But it's imaginable.

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00:10:28,593 --> 00:10:31,635
And this is how a person sees that.

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00:10:31,660 --> 00:10:34,288
So you put [them into a] plastic box,

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00:10:34,313 --> 00:10:39,161
and then on the screen
you have [an image] of your brain.

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00:10:40,391 --> 00:10:42,643
But now, what is the problem to be solved,

217
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or what is the challenge here.

218
00:10:44,537 --> 00:10:47,444
The challenge is that such devices
are very expensive,

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00:10:47,469 --> 00:10:50,606
20 million Polish zlotys. That's one.

220
00:10:50,631 --> 00:10:53,130
So there is only a few of them in Poland.

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00:10:54,693 --> 00:10:56,247
They are short.

222
00:10:56,272 --> 00:11:01,171
It means you cannot make
an image of the whole person.

223
00:11:01,196 --> 00:11:02,705
As you saw in this picture,

224
00:11:02,730 --> 00:11:07,079
there are short rings around the patient.

225
00:11:07,782 --> 00:11:11,126
And now, there is one more problem,
or a challenge.

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00:11:11,311 --> 00:11:17,281
How to improve
the sharpness of that image?

227
00:11:17,485 --> 00:11:22,216
And now, please look at that picture here.

228
00:11:22,811 --> 00:11:26,598
This is a picture
that I would like to [use] to [explain]

229
00:11:26,623 --> 00:11:29,779
the problem with the smearing
of the image.

230
00:11:29,889 --> 00:11:33,623
So, let's say this anti-electron

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touched an electron here --
we had two photons,

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two gamma quanta,
and they react here and here.

233
00:11:40,523 --> 00:11:42,132
But we don't know this.

234
00:11:42,325 --> 00:11:45,908
We know only that it was somewhere
in the detector.

235
00:11:46,200 --> 00:11:49,137
Because we have here a cable,
and the signal from the detector.

236
00:11:49,917 --> 00:11:50,940
Ah, sorry.

237
00:11:52,169 --> 00:11:54,205
(Camera shutter sounds)

238
00:11:54,581 --> 00:11:55,701
Sorry.

239
00:11:56,847 --> 00:11:59,493
So now, what we can plot

240
00:11:59,518 --> 00:12:01,653
is the line from the middle
of the detector

241
00:12:01,678 --> 00:12:03,131
to the middle of the detector.

242
00:12:03,441 --> 00:12:04,925
So we make a mistake.

243
00:12:05,050 --> 00:12:08,784
Because, in that case,
we know the true line is here,

244
00:12:09,050 --> 00:12:10,628
but we reconstruct that line.

245
00:12:10,730 --> 00:12:14,005
And this caused the smearing of the image.

246
00:12:14,647 --> 00:12:18,575
So now, there is one trivial way
to overcome this.

247
00:12:18,600 --> 00:12:22,944
The trivial way is to make these detectors
smaller and smaller,

248
00:12:23,320 --> 00:12:25,646
but then you increase the cost,

249
00:12:26,053 --> 00:12:28,803
because you increase
the number of the bulbs.

250
00:12:29,772 --> 00:12:32,709
And this is, now, the idea I had.

251
00:12:33,537 --> 00:12:36,537
Just, instead of making that,

252
00:12:36,562 --> 00:12:38,939
let's change the paradigm completely.

253
00:12:38,964 --> 00:12:42,589
Let's use a huge block
instead of small pieces.

254
00:12:42,933 --> 00:12:47,561
And let's try to find something out

255
00:12:47,586 --> 00:12:52,485
when the gamma heated the detector inside.

256
00:12:53,048 --> 00:12:59,975
And this is just the idea,
which is the direct transfer

257
00:13:00,272 --> 00:13:03,546
of the detectors we have
in that experiment.

258
00:13:03,571 --> 00:13:09,217
This is one of the experiments
I spent perhaps 15 years researching.

259
00:13:09,603 --> 00:13:13,779
And with those detectors
we were studying those mesons.

260
00:13:14,123 --> 00:13:15,243
And we were measuring --

261
00:13:15,390 --> 00:13:17,343
this is part of the accelerator --

262
00:13:17,499 --> 00:13:19,067
we were measuring the time

263
00:13:19,291 --> 00:13:22,091
[in which] particles
travel from there to here.

264
00:13:22,255 --> 00:13:24,348
This is nanoseconds, a very short time.

265
00:13:24,801 --> 00:13:26,197
But if you look at that --

266
00:13:26,400 --> 00:13:32,167
These were strips of plastic material

267
00:13:32,192 --> 00:13:34,400
which allowed to measure the particles.

268
00:13:34,775 --> 00:13:38,186
In a closer view,
it may be plotted like that.

269
00:13:38,313 --> 00:13:40,380
You have a strip of the material.

270
00:13:40,405 --> 00:13:43,608
If something hits it,
a particle, a gamma quantum,

271
00:13:44,062 --> 00:13:45,583
then there is a light inside,

272
00:13:45,697 --> 00:13:47,230
and if it is in the middle,

273
00:13:47,255 --> 00:13:49,520
then the time of the light signal
to that side,

274
00:13:49,545 --> 00:13:52,255
to this bulb, and to that bulb,
is the same.

275
00:13:52,707 --> 00:13:54,416
If it is closer to that --

276
00:13:55,839 --> 00:13:58,074
"PM" is not the abbreviation of my name,

277
00:13:58,099 --> 00:13:59,611
it is "photomultiplier."

278
00:13:59,636 --> 00:14:00,933
(Laughter)

279
00:14:01,228 --> 00:14:02,735
If it is closer to that,

280
00:14:02,760 --> 00:14:05,306
then this time is shorter,
this time is longer.

281
00:14:05,651 --> 00:14:07,369
So from the difference of times,

282
00:14:07,526 --> 00:14:11,088
you can define
when this gamma quantum really hit it.

283
00:14:11,240 --> 00:14:12,266
Very simple.

284
00:14:12,291 --> 00:14:16,035
This is used in all physics experiments,

285
00:14:16,060 --> 00:14:18,424
particle and nuclear physics experiments.

286
00:14:18,449 --> 00:14:22,680
And now, the only thing to [do was],

287
00:14:22,705 --> 00:14:26,017
how to make a tomograph [out of that].

288
00:14:26,173 --> 00:14:30,772
And then -- this is again something
like reinventing the circle,

289
00:14:31,460 --> 00:14:35,040
one can think of taking
this wall of those strips,

290
00:14:35,065 --> 00:14:37,741
and making a cylinder out of that.

291
00:14:38,929 --> 00:14:42,196
And now, you have those strips.

292
00:14:42,221 --> 00:14:43,971
You can put a bulb here, a bulb there,

293
00:14:43,996 --> 00:14:48,480
so you know when this gamma
from the human body hit, and in which way.

294
00:14:48,505 --> 00:14:51,021
You can put a patient here, inside.

295
00:14:51,046 --> 00:14:52,198
This can be large.

296
00:14:52,854 --> 00:14:56,323
The number of those photomultipliers,
of those bulbs,

297
00:14:56,573 --> 00:14:59,146
does not increase when you enlarge that.

298
00:14:59,171 --> 00:15:01,552
You may make this as large as you like.

299
00:15:02,067 --> 00:15:07,145
Even more, you can make more
of such cylinders.

300
00:15:07,255 --> 00:15:11,857
And then, you can increase the probability

301
00:15:11,882 --> 00:15:15,739
of detecting these gamma quanta.

302
00:15:17,771 --> 00:15:22,205
So now, the dream which we are trying
to realize with my colleagues,

303
00:15:22,230 --> 00:15:27,617
is to build such a tomograph,
which would allow for

304
00:15:27,642 --> 00:15:30,960
such molecular imaging
of the whole human body.

305
00:15:30,985 --> 00:15:32,359
Now it's clear.

306
00:15:32,595 --> 00:15:34,282
But now, what --

307
00:15:34,501 --> 00:15:35,501
(Beep)

308
00:15:35,611 --> 00:15:36,798
What is with that?

309
00:15:37,829 --> 00:15:39,319
(Phone rings twice)

310
00:15:39,428 --> 00:15:41,528
Now, you may believe it or not,

311
00:15:41,658 --> 00:15:44,192
I conceived [of] that cylinder

312
00:15:44,217 --> 00:15:48,334
out of that detector which you saw.

313
00:15:48,801 --> 00:15:53,406
But then, I realized that I was working
in collaboration with

314
00:15:53,431 --> 00:15:55,915
a laboratory who has such a cylinder.

315
00:15:56,260 --> 00:15:57,728
This is the one in Italy.

316
00:15:57,978 --> 00:16:00,940
4 meters large, with scintillators,
with those materials,

317
00:16:00,965 --> 00:16:02,827
and we are [doing] experiments there.

318
00:16:03,437 --> 00:16:06,608
Then, when preparing this talk...

319
00:16:07,374 --> 00:16:08,921
Oh, that again.
(Phone rings once)

320
00:16:12,101 --> 00:16:15,420
I realized that I was working
on an experiment

321
00:16:15,445 --> 00:16:18,929
which had such a huge barrel
of scintillator.

322
00:16:19,575 --> 00:16:21,689
And I am working on another experiment,

323
00:16:21,714 --> 00:16:23,263
which when you look inside,

324
00:16:23,560 --> 00:16:26,200
there is again a barrel of scintillator.

325
00:16:26,607 --> 00:16:30,872
So, you may [see] here
how large those barrels are.

326
00:16:31,001 --> 00:16:33,575
A person could even walk inside,
if this [worked].

327
00:16:34,716 --> 00:16:38,659
So there is a chance
to really [make] such a tomograph,

328
00:16:38,861 --> 00:16:41,844
especially that such technology
is used nowadays,

329
00:16:41,869 --> 00:16:43,768
in particle and nuclear physics.

330
00:16:44,487 --> 00:16:47,600
And I hope, like Rafał told us,

331
00:16:47,625 --> 00:16:49,852
that somebody will take
his message seriously,

332
00:16:50,243 --> 00:16:55,364
and somebody clever
will just make this tomograph

333
00:16:55,389 --> 00:16:58,059
in some groups which are rich enough

334
00:16:58,084 --> 00:17:00,092
to build all those bulbs, and so on.

335
00:17:00,295 --> 00:17:01,576
But independently,

336
00:17:01,952 --> 00:17:05,779
I and my colleagues
are trying to do that here in Cracow.

337
00:17:06,030 --> 00:17:07,430
And then...

338
00:17:08,297 --> 00:17:10,117
(Phone rings twice)

339
00:17:10,453 --> 00:17:13,654
This is just to point
to the end of my talk.

340
00:17:13,679 --> 00:17:14,717
Thank you very much.

341
00:17:14,742 --> 00:17:17,997
(Applause)