0:00:00.656,0:00:04.593
Ladies and gentlemen, as Paul [said],

0:00:04.726,0:00:09.312
my hobby, and at the same time[br]profession, is physics.

0:00:09.641,0:00:12.774
And this is, for me,[br]a very lucky coincidence.

0:00:13.352,0:00:17.749
And I think, as Democritus once said,

0:00:17.774,0:00:19.351
I can also repeat now,

0:00:19.376,0:00:24.644
that I would rather prefer[br]to discover one causal law

0:00:24.669,0:00:26.609
than be King of Persia.

0:00:27.140,0:00:32.119
And I am pretty sure[br]there is a lot of phenomena

0:00:33.536,0:00:35.356
awaiting our discovery...

0:00:35.745,0:00:39.163
Oh, let me know... Yeah, it's working.

0:00:39.963,0:00:43.078
[Phenomena] which are occurring,[br]perhaps, even now, here,

0:00:43.750,0:00:45.921
but we do not recognize them.

0:00:46.031,0:00:49.616
And I have my personal proof for that,

0:00:49.641,0:00:51.593
at least it is convincing [to] me.

0:00:52.047,0:00:56.487
That was an astonishment[br]I experienced once,

0:00:56.512,0:01:01.075
when working at this nice,[br]and even cozy accelerator,

0:01:01.100,0:01:06.050
when a friend of mine[br]came to my office, and...

0:01:06.075,0:01:07.697
(Phone rings twice)

0:01:07.722,0:01:10.174
And something like that happened,[br]and then he [said],

0:01:10.199,0:01:13.904
"Please pick it up,[br]because this is an external call."

0:01:15.639,0:01:20.998
So I excused [myself] for a moment,

0:01:21.123,0:01:23.923
and then it was, indeed, an external call.

0:01:24.222,0:01:26.794
And then I asked him,[br]"How do you know that?"

0:01:27.191,0:01:29.129
And this was the explanation.

0:01:29.154,0:01:32.643
This was the external call...[br](Phone rings twice)

0:01:32.893,0:01:36.158
And this is an internal call.[br](Phone rings once)

0:01:36.331,0:01:37.731
(Laughter)

0:01:38.191,0:01:41.437
Many of you are also working[br]in institutions,

0:01:41.462,0:01:43.321
you recognize that, perhaps.

0:01:44.025,0:01:46.825
I [had been] working there for many years,

0:01:47.290,0:01:50.234
in that office, and didn't realize that.

0:01:50.259,0:01:51.659
(Laughter)

0:01:51.759,0:01:54.664
And this was...

0:01:55.930,0:01:59.716
I learned a good lesson of humility.

0:01:59.998,0:02:02.466
A painful lesson for the researcher

0:02:02.491,0:02:05.475
whose ambition is to [discover], say,

0:02:05.500,0:02:07.673
less trivial things than that.

0:02:07.698,0:02:09.140
(Laughter)

0:02:09.166,0:02:10.704
So... (Laughter)

0:02:10.729,0:02:13.109
But this also gave me a promise

0:02:13.134,0:02:15.975
that there is a chance[br]to discover something --

0:02:16.000,0:02:17.537
(Laughter)

0:02:17.562,0:02:19.389
[Something] I didn't notice till now.

0:02:19.414,0:02:21.749
And today,[br]I would like to tell you a story

0:02:21.774,0:02:23.918
more successful, for me, at least,

0:02:24.430,0:02:30.757
about antimatter-based molecular imaging[br]of the whole human body.

0:02:32.088,0:02:33.770
So, what do I mean by that?

0:02:33.795,0:02:38.080
So I would like to tell you[br]about an idea, or invention.

0:02:38.105,0:02:40.081
About a cylinder,

0:02:40.300,0:02:45.534
a device which [will] one day[br]perhaps surround a person.

0:02:45.767,0:02:49.610
And with that device, I hope,[br]we will be able, in the future,

0:02:49.822,0:02:52.445
to make tomographic images,

0:02:52.470,0:02:55.810
non-invasive pictures of the human body,

0:02:55.835,0:02:57.413
of the whole human body.

0:02:58.162,0:03:02.299
So perhaps a less scientific topic

0:03:02.324,0:03:04.595
of my presentation today could be:

0:03:04.620,0:03:07.420
"How I have reinvented the cylinder."

0:03:07.730,0:03:10.157
But now, after you laughed truly

0:03:10.345,0:03:14.470
when Charles Crawford[br]was showing a formula,

0:03:14.977,0:03:17.366
I think I'm obliged now to give a lesson,

0:03:17.391,0:03:21.069
before we go farther[br]off solid-state physics,

0:03:21.835,0:03:25.334
atomic physics, nuclear physics,

0:03:25.617,0:03:28.060
and then, at the end, particle physics.

0:03:28.085,0:03:32.153
That's all we need to understand[br]the rest of the talk.

0:03:32.178,0:03:33.215
(Laughter)

0:03:33.240,0:03:34.606
But... (Laughter)

0:03:34.778,0:03:36.227
Then, [looking at] some of you,

0:03:36.252,0:03:39.034
I see colleagues from my institute [here],

0:03:39.059,0:03:42.340
younger, [who] have perhaps[br]already attended such lectures.

0:03:42.622,0:03:47.824
I will [do] this in a way I'm sure[br]none of you have [been] shown,

0:03:48.080,0:03:50.809
because I would like to start from --

0:03:51.385,0:03:53.928
I should point it here --

0:03:54.069,0:03:58.506
from the bush I made[br]a photo of in my garden.

0:03:59.053,0:04:02.144
So, as a researcher,[br]you might put [your] head inside it,

0:04:02.169,0:04:04.940
and then you recognize[br]there is a lot of fruits there.

0:04:06.163,0:04:09.731
But with a scope,[br]perhaps you could go farther.

0:04:09.999,0:04:12.491
And now, let us skip molecular physics.

0:04:12.804,0:04:15.194
These fruits are surely from molecules,

0:04:15.460,0:04:17.428
and the molecules are from atoms.

0:04:17.735,0:04:19.075
(Laughter)

0:04:19.100,0:04:20.451
(Applause)

0:04:20.476,0:04:23.451
So, now...(Applause)

0:04:23.476,0:04:27.409
Now we are already[br]at atomic physics, and this is, now --

0:04:27.434,0:04:29.832
(Laughter)

0:04:29.857,0:04:32.763
[It's] very important to recognize that --

0:04:32.866,0:04:35.508
and this is really important[br]for the rest of the talk --

0:04:35.533,0:04:38.003
that this is not to scale,[br]and I could not --

0:04:38.028,0:04:39.582
(Laughter)

0:04:39.607,0:04:41.290
[I] could not plot it to scale,

0:04:41.315,0:04:45.768
because the nucleus is much smaller,

0:04:45.878,0:04:47.956
in comparison to the size of the atom.

0:04:48.155,0:04:50.748
And that is why some of the particles

0:04:50.894,0:04:54.859
can just traverse through[br]the human body, or through matter,

0:04:54.884,0:04:56.655
if they are energetic enough.

0:04:57.233,0:04:59.305
And then, in the next [figure],

0:04:59.330,0:05:00.853
let us go to nuclear physics.

0:05:00.878,0:05:02.198
This is the nucleus.

0:05:02.223,0:05:05.771
And then, quickly, to particle physics.

0:05:05.796,0:05:07.660
The nucleus is [composed of] quarks.

0:05:08.223,0:05:11.711
And now, going back[br]to the word "antimatter,"

0:05:11.736,0:05:13.676
now [we have] really come to the point.

0:05:14.754,0:05:17.554
There are also quarks and anti-quarks.

0:05:17.723,0:05:20.516
So, they are the objects[br]which I am really studying

0:05:20.541,0:05:22.813
in my daily life.

0:05:22.838,0:05:25.593
[They] are called mesons,[br]not important for this talk,

0:05:25.618,0:05:28.369
but I am doing that[br]so I had to mention that.

0:05:28.503,0:05:29.688
(Laughter)

0:05:29.713,0:05:34.247
And mesons are built[br]out of matter and antimatter.

0:05:34.732,0:05:36.785
So they only live [a very short time].

0:05:36.810,0:05:39.872
If that quark and anti-quark[br]touch each other,

0:05:40.341,0:05:43.251
it disappears in the form of energy.

0:05:43.669,0:05:47.075
And now, for the imaging,[br]we need something similar.

0:05:47.216,0:05:50.317
But we cannot have a meson[br]in the laboratory,

0:05:50.342,0:05:52.208
because it lives [only] for a while,

0:05:52.233,0:05:56.279
not worth mentioning.

0:05:56.481,0:06:01.032
But there is another source of antimatter[br]that we [do] have in the laboratories,

0:06:01.057,0:06:04.383
in most nuclear physics laboratories,

0:06:04.728,0:06:07.311
which [are] the isotopes,

0:06:07.525,0:06:13.771
the atoms, or substances,[br]like fluorine, like oxygen,

0:06:13.796,0:06:16.350
but which can radioactively decay.

0:06:16.375,0:06:17.542
And this we all know.

0:06:17.567,0:06:20.629
But there is one radioactive decay[br]which is very special.

0:06:21.114,0:06:22.932
Which out of those three [types],

0:06:22.957,0:06:24.712
Alpha, Beta and Gamma,

0:06:24.737,0:06:28.518
Beta is the most mysterious one,[br]or the most mystic.

0:06:28.830,0:06:30.373
And this is like that.

0:06:30.398,0:06:36.052
One of the nucleons inside the nucleus,

0:06:36.077,0:06:38.053
decays, as it was shown here.

0:06:38.523,0:06:40.343
Oh, let me come back.

0:06:40.507,0:06:44.701
To an anti-electron, it is e+ here.

0:06:44.726,0:06:47.210
It's not an electron,[br]but an anti-electron.

0:06:47.492,0:06:49.116
The electron has a "minus."

0:06:49.731,0:06:51.482
And this is an anti-electron.

0:06:51.507,0:06:53.304
This is something which,

0:06:53.491,0:06:57.091
if it touched the electron,

0:06:57.116,0:06:58.987
then annihilation [would] occur,

0:06:59.012,0:07:01.517
and you would have energy.

0:07:01.542,0:07:06.043
So now, which is already used[br]in the world,

0:07:06.747,0:07:09.016
you can cheat a little,

0:07:09.041,0:07:11.235
and make, for example, radioactive sugar,

0:07:11.399,0:07:12.883
instead of usual sugar.

0:07:13.321,0:07:15.413
The radioactive sugar is just sugar,

0:07:15.438,0:07:18.680
made, for example, with fluorine,

0:07:19.087,0:07:21.335
but instead of usual fluorine,

0:07:21.360,0:07:23.542
you take radioactive fluorine,

0:07:23.567,0:07:25.897
which then emits positrons,

0:07:25.922,0:07:27.490
those anti-electrons.

0:07:27.772,0:07:30.381
And you [can] administer that[br]to the patient

0:07:30.506,0:07:31.912
like you see in that picture.

0:07:32.209,0:07:34.919
And then, all the processes with the sugar

0:07:34.944,0:07:36.178
which occur in the body,

0:07:36.413,0:07:39.381
are exactly the same[br]as with the usual sugar,

0:07:39.616,0:07:41.799
but from time to time you have a signal

0:07:41.824,0:07:43.372
from the interior of the body,

0:07:43.397,0:07:46.366
because this decay happens there.

0:07:46.757,0:07:48.840
And now, if you look --

0:07:49.059,0:07:51.159
If this decay happens somewhere,

0:07:51.372,0:07:53.668
you have this anti-electron.

0:07:54.356,0:07:55.786
If it touches the electron --

0:07:55.811,0:07:57.037
we are in the first order,

0:07:57.062,0:07:59.662
from electrons and those nuclei,[br]nothing else.

0:08:00.463,0:08:02.236
So if it touches this electron,

0:08:02.346,0:08:05.705
then they annihilate,[br]because it was matter and antimatter.

0:08:05.808,0:08:07.736
And those two photons,

0:08:07.761,0:08:09.283
two gamma quanta,

0:08:09.308,0:08:12.761
are flying in a line,[br]apart from each other.

0:08:13.198,0:08:14.773
And they are energetic,

0:08:14.798,0:08:17.569
energetic enough to go through atoms.

0:08:17.736,0:08:20.228
So they can go outside of the body.

0:08:21.126,0:08:25.538
And now, we are close[br]to the explanation of that word.

0:08:25.563,0:08:27.116
So we had a positron,

0:08:27.257,0:08:28.568
we had emission,

0:08:28.593,0:08:30.133
and now we have detectors,

0:08:30.158,0:08:32.506
so we have Positron Emission Tomography,

0:08:32.532,0:08:33.836
with those detectors.

0:08:33.861,0:08:37.121
Now it's enough to put [detectors][br]around the human body,

0:08:37.145,0:08:40.645
which are capable of detecting[br]those gamma quanta.

0:08:41.227,0:08:46.355
And you can [take] a picture[br]of the interior of the body,

0:08:46.380,0:08:49.337
or [first of all],[br]you can [take] a picture

0:08:49.462,0:08:54.699
of where those sugars were distributed[br]around the organism.

0:08:55.233,0:08:58.490
And now, you may wonder[br]how one can do that.

0:08:58.515,0:09:01.370
I have an easy example, the simplest one.

0:09:01.395,0:09:04.458
Let's assume [all] the sugar administered

0:09:04.646,0:09:07.446
was just absorbed[br]in one place in the brain.

0:09:08.154,0:09:11.699
Let's say that that [unfortunate] person[br]had a [tumor],

0:09:11.815,0:09:14.854
and this was absorbed[br]really point-like, in one place.

0:09:15.462,0:09:18.714
Then, it's very easy to imagine[br]how you can [take] a picture

0:09:19.720,0:09:21.094
of that brain, or that point,

0:09:21.119,0:09:23.354
Because what we measure...[br](Shutter sound)

0:09:23.379,0:09:28.650
Let's say those points,[br]those blue rectangles, are detectors.

0:09:28.775,0:09:30.574
Something which can register.

0:09:30.932,0:09:32.962
OK, a bulb.

0:09:33.213,0:09:36.702
If you put a current into the bulb,[br]then you see the light.

0:09:37.029,0:09:39.974
If you put the light to the detectors,[br]you see the current.

0:09:39.999,0:09:42.146
Shall I say, it's an anti-bulb.

0:09:42.171,0:09:45.051
So what [do] we have? We...

0:09:46.724,0:09:48.198
We [administered] a sugar,

0:09:48.223,0:09:50.474
then that sugar is sometimes[br]decaying somewhere.

0:09:50.499,0:09:53.395
In that case, it's always decaying here.

0:09:53.519,0:09:55.641
And we measured the signal here and here.

0:09:55.666,0:09:57.157
There is a lot of cables there.

0:09:57.182,0:09:59.011
But we know it was here and here.

0:09:59.355,0:10:01.917
So what we do is to plot a line.

0:10:02.627,0:10:06.663
But we don't know [where][br]this sugar was, along this line.

0:10:06.805,0:10:09.880
But it's of course decaying[br]in different directions. (Shutter sound)

0:10:09.905,0:10:12.617
So it's enough to have[br]two such lines, (Shutter sound)

0:10:12.642,0:10:13.898
and you know the point.

0:10:14.602,0:10:16.536
So now it's very easy to imagine

0:10:16.561,0:10:19.779
that you can [take] such a picture[br]of the [whole] body.

0:10:20.186,0:10:22.676
OK, it's not as easy[br]as I plot it now, but...

0:10:22.701,0:10:24.389
(Laughter)

0:10:24.748,0:10:26.568
But it's imaginable.

0:10:28.593,0:10:31.635
And this is how a person sees that.

0:10:31.660,0:10:34.288
So you put [them into a] plastic box,

0:10:34.313,0:10:39.161
and then on the screen[br]you have [an image] of your brain.

0:10:40.391,0:10:42.643
But now, what is the problem to be solved,

0:10:42.668,0:10:44.219
or what is the challenge here.

0:10:44.537,0:10:47.444
The challenge is that such devices[br]are very expensive,

0:10:47.469,0:10:50.606
20 million Polish zlotys. That's one.

0:10:50.631,0:10:53.130
So there is only a few of them in Poland.

0:10:54.693,0:10:56.247
They are short.

0:10:56.272,0:11:01.171
It means you cannot make[br]an image of the whole person.

0:11:01.196,0:11:02.705
As you saw in this picture,

0:11:02.730,0:11:07.079
there are short rings around the patient.

0:11:07.782,0:11:11.126
And now, there is one more problem,[br]or a challenge.

0:11:11.311,0:11:17.281
How to improve[br]the sharpness of that image?

0:11:17.485,0:11:22.216
And now, please look at that picture here.

0:11:22.811,0:11:26.598
This is a picture[br]that I would like to [use] to [explain]

0:11:26.623,0:11:29.779
the problem with the smearing[br]of the image.

0:11:29.889,0:11:33.623
So, let's say this anti-electron

0:11:34.143,0:11:37.232
touched an electron here --[br]we had two photons,

0:11:37.257,0:11:40.363
two gamma quanta,[br]and they react here and here.

0:11:40.523,0:11:42.132
But we don't know this.

0:11:42.325,0:11:45.908
We know only that it was somewhere[br]in the detector.

0:11:46.200,0:11:49.137
Because we have here a cable,[br]and the signal from the detector.

0:11:49.917,0:11:50.940
Ah, sorry.

0:11:52.169,0:11:54.205
(Camera shutter sounds)

0:11:54.581,0:11:55.701
Sorry.

0:11:56.847,0:11:59.493
So now, what we can plot

0:11:59.518,0:12:01.653
is the line from the middle[br]of the detector

0:12:01.678,0:12:03.131
to the middle of the detector.

0:12:03.441,0:12:04.925
So we make a mistake.

0:12:05.050,0:12:08.784
Because, in that case,[br]we know the true line is here,

0:12:09.050,0:12:10.628
but we reconstruct that line.

0:12:10.730,0:12:14.005
And this caused the smearing of the image.

0:12:14.647,0:12:18.575
So now, there is one trivial way[br]to overcome this.

0:12:18.600,0:12:22.944
The trivial way is to make these detectors[br]smaller and smaller,

0:12:23.320,0:12:25.646
but then you increase the cost,

0:12:26.053,0:12:28.803
because you increase[br]the number of the bulbs.

0:12:29.772,0:12:32.709
And this is, now, the idea I had.

0:12:33.537,0:12:36.537
Just, instead of making that,

0:12:36.562,0:12:38.939
let's change the paradigm completely.

0:12:38.964,0:12:42.589
Let's use a huge block[br]instead of small pieces.

0:12:42.933,0:12:47.561
And let's try to find something out

0:12:47.586,0:12:52.485
when the gamma heated the detector inside.

0:12:53.048,0:12:59.975
And this is just the idea,[br]which is the direct transfer

0:13:00.272,0:13:03.546
of the detectors we have[br]in that experiment.

0:13:03.571,0:13:09.217
This is one of the experiments[br]I spent perhaps 15 years researching.

0:13:09.603,0:13:13.779
And with those detectors[br]we were studying those mesons.

0:13:14.123,0:13:15.243
And we were measuring --

0:13:15.390,0:13:17.343
this is part of the accelerator --

0:13:17.499,0:13:19.067
we were measuring the time

0:13:19.291,0:13:22.091
[in which] particles[br]travel from there to here.

0:13:22.255,0:13:24.348
This is nanoseconds, a very short time.

0:13:24.801,0:13:26.197
But if you look at that --

0:13:26.400,0:13:32.167
These were strips of plastic material

0:13:32.192,0:13:34.400
which allowed to measure the particles.

0:13:34.775,0:13:38.186
In a closer view,[br]it may be plotted like that.

0:13:38.313,0:13:40.380
You have a strip of the material.

0:13:40.405,0:13:43.608
If something hits it,[br]a particle, a gamma quantum,

0:13:44.062,0:13:45.583
then there is a light inside,

0:13:45.697,0:13:47.230
and if it is in the middle,

0:13:47.255,0:13:49.520
then the time of the light signal[br]to that side,

0:13:49.545,0:13:52.255
to this bulb, and to that bulb,[br]is the same.

0:13:52.707,0:13:54.416
If it is closer to that --

0:13:55.839,0:13:58.074
"PM" is not the abbreviation of my name,

0:13:58.099,0:13:59.611
it is "photomultiplier."

0:13:59.636,0:14:00.933
(Laughter)

0:14:01.228,0:14:02.735
If it is closer to that,

0:14:02.760,0:14:05.306
then this time is shorter,[br]this time is longer.

0:14:05.651,0:14:07.369
So from the difference of times,

0:14:07.526,0:14:11.088
you can define[br]when this gamma quantum really hit it.

0:14:11.240,0:14:12.266
Very simple.

0:14:12.291,0:14:16.035
This is used in all physics experiments,

0:14:16.060,0:14:18.424
particle and nuclear physics experiments.

0:14:18.449,0:14:22.680
And now, the only thing to [do was],

0:14:22.705,0:14:26.017
how to make a tomograph [out of that].

0:14:26.173,0:14:30.772
And then -- this is again something[br]like reinventing the circle,

0:14:31.460,0:14:35.040
one can think of taking[br]this wall of those strips,

0:14:35.065,0:14:37.741
and making a cylinder out of that.

0:14:38.929,0:14:42.196
And now, you have those strips.

0:14:42.221,0:14:43.971
You can put a bulb here, a bulb there,

0:14:43.996,0:14:48.480
so you know when this gamma[br]from the human body hit, and in which way.

0:14:48.505,0:14:51.021
You can put a patient here, inside.

0:14:51.046,0:14:52.198
This can be large.

0:14:52.854,0:14:56.323
The number of those photomultipliers,[br]of those bulbs,

0:14:56.573,0:14:59.146
does not increase when you enlarge that.

0:14:59.171,0:15:01.552
You may make this as large as you like.

0:15:02.067,0:15:07.145
Even more, you can make more[br]of such cylinders.

0:15:07.255,0:15:11.857
And then, you can increase the probability

0:15:11.882,0:15:15.739
of detecting these gamma quanta.

0:15:17.771,0:15:22.205
So now, the dream which we are trying[br]to realize with my colleagues,

0:15:22.230,0:15:27.617
is to build such a tomograph,[br]which would allow for

0:15:27.642,0:15:30.960
such molecular imaging[br]of the whole human body.

0:15:30.985,0:15:32.359
Now it's clear.

0:15:32.595,0:15:34.282
But now, what --

0:15:34.501,0:15:35.501
(Beep)

0:15:35.611,0:15:36.798
What is with that?

0:15:37.829,0:15:39.319
(Phone rings twice)

0:15:39.428,0:15:41.528
Now, you may believe it or not,

0:15:41.658,0:15:44.192
I conceived [of] that cylinder

0:15:44.217,0:15:48.334
out of that detector which you saw.

0:15:48.801,0:15:53.406
But then, I realized that I was working[br]in collaboration with

0:15:53.431,0:15:55.915
a laboratory who has such a cylinder.

0:15:56.260,0:15:57.728
This is the one in Italy.

0:15:57.978,0:16:00.940
4 meters large, with scintillators,[br]with those materials,

0:16:00.965,0:16:02.827
and we are [doing] experiments there.

0:16:03.437,0:16:06.608
Then, when preparing this talk...

0:16:07.374,0:16:08.921
Oh, that again.[br](Phone rings once)

0:16:12.101,0:16:15.420
I realized that I was working[br]on an experiment

0:16:15.445,0:16:18.929
which had such a huge barrel[br]of scintillator.

0:16:19.575,0:16:21.689
And I am working on another experiment,

0:16:21.714,0:16:23.263
which when you look inside,

0:16:23.560,0:16:26.200
there is again a barrel of scintillator.

0:16:26.607,0:16:30.872
So, you may [see] here[br]how large those barrels are.

0:16:31.001,0:16:33.575
A person could even walk inside,[br]if this [worked].

0:16:34.716,0:16:38.659
So there is a chance[br]to really [make] such a tomograph,

0:16:38.861,0:16:41.844
especially that such technology[br]is used nowadays,

0:16:41.869,0:16:43.768
in particle and nuclear physics.

0:16:44.487,0:16:47.600
And I hope, like Rafał told us,

0:16:47.625,0:16:49.852
that somebody will take[br]his message seriously,

0:16:50.243,0:16:55.364
and somebody clever[br]will just make this tomograph

0:16:55.389,0:16:58.059
in some groups which are rich enough

0:16:58.084,0:17:00.092
to build all those bulbs, and so on.

0:17:00.295,0:17:01.576
But independently,

0:17:01.952,0:17:05.779
I and my colleagues[br]are trying to do that here in Cracow.

0:17:06.030,0:17:07.430
And then...

0:17:08.297,0:17:10.117
(Phone rings twice)

0:17:10.453,0:17:13.654
This is just to point[br]to the end of my talk.

0:17:13.679,0:17:14.717
Thank you very much.

0:17:14.742,0:17:17.997
(Applause)