1
00:00:00,656 --> 00:00:04,725
Ladies and gentlemen, as Paul [said],

2
00:00:04,726 --> 00:00:09,640
my hobby, and at the same time
profession, is physics.

3
00:00:09,641 --> 00:00:13,351
And this is, for me,
a very lucky coincidence.

4
00:00:13,352 --> 00:00:17,773
And I think, as Democritus once said,

5
00:00:17,774 --> 00:00:19,375
I can also repeat now,

6
00:00:19,376 --> 00:00:24,668
that I would rather prefer
to discover one causal law

7
00:00:24,669 --> 00:00:27,139
than be King of Persia.

8
00:00:27,140 --> 00:00:33,535
And I am pretty sure there is
a lot of phenomena

9
00:00:33,536 --> 00:00:35,744
awaiting our discovery...

10
00:00:35,745 --> 00:00:39,962
Oh, let me know... Yeah, it's working.

11
00:00:39,963 --> 00:00:43,750
[Phenomena] which are occurring,
perhaps, even now, here,

12
00:00:43,751 --> 00:00:46,030
but we do not recognize them.

13
00:00:46,031 --> 00:00:49,640
And I have my personal proof for that,

14
00:00:49,641 --> 00:00:52,046
at least it is convincing [to] me.

15
00:00:52,047 --> 00:00:56,511
That was an astonishment
I experienced once,

16
00:00:56,512 --> 00:01:01,099
when working at this nice,
and even cozy accelerator,

17
00:01:01,100 --> 00:01:06,074
when a friend of mine
came to my office, and...

18
00:01:06,075 --> 00:01:07,721
(Phone rings twice)

19
00:01:07,722 --> 00:01:10,199
And something like that happened,
and then he [said],

20
00:01:10,200 --> 00:01:15,638
"Please pick it up,
because this is an external call."

21
00:01:15,639 --> 00:01:21,122
So I excused [myself] for a moment,

22
00:01:21,123 --> 00:01:24,221
and then it was, indeed, an external call.

23
00:01:24,222 --> 00:01:27,189
And then I asked him,
"How do you know that?"

24
00:01:27,190 --> 00:01:29,154
And this was the explanation.

25
00:01:29,155 --> 00:01:32,892
This was the external call.
(Phone rings twice)

26
00:01:32,893 --> 00:01:36,330
And this is an internal call.
(Phone rings once)

27
00:01:36,331 --> 00:01:38,190
(Laughter)

28
00:01:38,191 --> 00:01:41,461
Many of you
are also working in institutions,

29
00:01:41,462 --> 00:01:44,024
you recognize that, perhaps.

30
00:01:44,025 --> 00:01:47,289
I [had been] working there for many years,

31
00:01:47,290 --> 00:01:50,258
in that office, and didn't realize that.

32
00:01:50,259 --> 00:01:51,758
(Laughter)

33
00:01:51,759 --> 00:01:55,929
And this was...

34
00:01:55,930 --> 00:01:59,997
I learned a good lesson of humility.

35
00:01:59,998 --> 00:02:02,490
A painful lesson for the researcher

36
00:02:02,491 --> 00:02:05,499
whose ambition is to [discover], say,

37
00:02:05,500 --> 00:02:07,697
less trivial things than that.

38
00:02:07,698 --> 00:02:09,165
(Laughter)

39
00:02:09,166 --> 00:02:10,728
So... (Laughter)

40
00:02:10,729 --> 00:02:13,133
But this also gave me a promise

41
00:02:13,134 --> 00:02:16,000
that there is a chance
to discover something --

42
00:02:16,001 --> 00:02:17,561
(Laughter)

43
00:02:17,562 --> 00:02:19,412
[Something] I didn't notice till now.

44
00:02:19,413 --> 00:02:21,774
And today, I would like to tell you a story

45
00:02:21,775 --> 00:02:24,429
more successful, for me, at least,

46
00:02:24,430 --> 00:02:32,087
about antimatter-based molecular imaging
of the whole human body.

47
00:02:32,088 --> 00:02:33,795
So, what do I mean by that?

48
00:02:33,796 --> 00:02:38,104
So I would like to tell you
about an idea, or invention.

49
00:02:38,105 --> 00:02:40,299
About a cylinder,

50
00:02:40,300 --> 00:02:45,766
a device which [will] one day
perhaps surround a person.

51
00:02:45,767 --> 00:02:49,822
And with that device, I hope,
we will be able, in the future,

52
00:02:49,823 --> 00:02:52,469
to make tomographic images,

53
00:02:52,470 --> 00:02:55,834
non-invasive pictures of the human body,

54
00:02:55,835 --> 00:02:58,161
of the whole human body.

55
00:02:58,162 --> 00:03:02,323
So perhaps a less scientific topic

56
00:03:02,324 --> 00:03:04,620
of my presentation today could be:

57
00:03:04,621 --> 00:03:07,729
"How I have reinvented the cylinder."

58
00:03:07,730 --> 00:03:10,344
But now, after you laughed truly

59
00:03:10,345 --> 00:03:14,976
when Charles Crawford
was showing a formula,

60
00:03:14,977 --> 00:03:17,391
I think I'm obliged now to give a lesson,

61
00:03:17,392 --> 00:03:21,834
before we go farther off
solid-state physics,

62
00:03:21,835 --> 00:03:25,616
atomic physics, nuclear physics,

63
00:03:25,617 --> 00:03:28,085
and then, at the end, particle physics.

64
00:03:28,086 --> 00:03:32,177
That's all we need to understand
the rest of the talk.

65
00:03:32,178 --> 00:03:33,239
(Laughter)

66
00:03:33,240 --> 00:03:34,777
But... (Laughter)

67
00:03:34,778 --> 00:03:36,152
Then, [looking at] some of you,

68
00:03:36,153 --> 00:03:39,058
I see colleagues from my institute [here],

69
00:03:39,059 --> 00:03:42,622
younger, [who] have perhaps
already attended such lectures.

70
00:03:42,623 --> 00:03:48,079
I will [do] this in a way I'm sure
none of you have [been] shown,

71
00:03:48,080 --> 00:03:51,384
because I would like to start from --

72
00:03:51,385 --> 00:03:54,068
I should point it here --

73
00:03:54,069 --> 00:03:59,052
from the bush I made
a photo of in my garden.

74
00:03:59,053 --> 00:04:02,169
So, as a researcher, you might
put [your] head inside it,

75
00:04:02,170 --> 00:04:06,162
and then you recognize there is
a lot of fruits there.

76
00:04:06,163 --> 00:04:09,998
But with a scope,
perhaps you could go farther.

77
00:04:09,999 --> 00:04:12,803
And now, let us skip molecular physics.

78
00:04:12,804 --> 00:04:15,459
These fruits are surely from molecules,

79
00:04:15,460 --> 00:04:17,734
and the molecules are from atoms.

80
00:04:17,735 --> 00:04:19,099
(Laughter)

81
00:04:19,100 --> 00:04:20,475
(Applause)

82
00:04:20,476 --> 00:04:23,475
So, now...(Applause)

83
00:04:23,476 --> 00:04:27,433
Now we are already
at atomic physics, and this is, now --

84
00:04:27,434 --> 00:04:29,856
(Laughter)

85
00:04:29,857 --> 00:04:32,865
[It's] very important to recognize that --

86
00:04:32,866 --> 00:04:35,531
and this is really important
for the rest of the talk --

87
00:04:35,532 --> 00:04:38,028
that this is not to scale,
and I could not --

88
00:04:38,029 --> 00:04:39,606
(Laughter)

89
00:04:39,607 --> 00:04:41,315
[I] could not plot it to scale,

90
00:04:41,316 --> 00:04:45,877
because the nucleus is much smaller,

91
00:04:45,878 --> 00:04:48,155
in comparison to the size of the atom.

92
00:04:48,156 --> 00:04:50,893
And that is why some of the particles

93
00:04:50,894 --> 00:04:54,884
can just traverse
through the human body, or matter,

94
00:04:54,885 --> 00:04:57,232
if they are energetic enough.

95
00:04:57,233 --> 00:04:59,328
And then, in the next [figure],

96
00:04:59,329 --> 00:05:00,876
let us go to nuclear physics.

97
00:05:00,877 --> 00:05:02,223
This is the nucleus.

98
00:05:02,224 --> 00:05:05,795
And then, quickly, to particle physics.

99
00:05:05,796 --> 00:05:08,223
The nucleus is [composed of] quarks.

100
00:05:08,224 --> 00:05:11,735
And now, going back
to the word "antimatter,"

101
00:05:11,736 --> 00:05:14,753
now [we have] really come to the point.

102
00:05:14,754 --> 00:05:17,722
There are also quarks and anti-quarks.

103
00:05:17,723 --> 00:05:20,541
So, they are the objects
which I am really studying

104
00:05:20,542 --> 00:05:22,837
in my daily life.

105
00:05:22,838 --> 00:05:25,616
[They] are called mesons,
not important for this talk,

106
00:05:25,617 --> 00:05:28,503
but I am doing that,
so I had to mention that.

107
00:05:28,504 --> 00:05:29,712
(Laughter)

108
00:05:29,713 --> 00:05:34,731
And mesons are built out of
matter and antimatter.

109
00:05:34,732 --> 00:05:36,810
That's why they can only live
[a very short time].

110
00:05:36,811 --> 00:05:40,340
If that quark and anti-quark
touch each other,

111
00:05:40,341 --> 00:05:43,668
it disappears in the form of energy.

112
00:05:43,669 --> 00:05:47,215
And now, for the imaging,
we need something similar.

113
00:05:47,216 --> 00:05:50,341
But we cannot have
a meson in the laboratory,

114
00:05:50,342 --> 00:05:52,233
because it lives [only] for a while,

115
00:05:52,234 --> 00:05:56,480
not worth mentioning.

116
00:05:56,481 --> 00:05:59,523
But there is another source of antimatter

117
00:05:59,524 --> 00:06:01,057
that we have in the laboratories,

118
00:06:01,058 --> 00:06:04,727
in most nuclear physics laboratories,

119
00:06:04,728 --> 00:06:07,524
which [are] the isotopes,

120
00:06:07,525 --> 00:06:13,795
the atoms, or substances,
like fluorine, like oxygen,

121
00:06:13,796 --> 00:06:16,374
but which can radioactively decay.

122
00:06:16,375 --> 00:06:17,565
And this we all know.

123
00:06:17,566 --> 00:06:21,112
But there is one radioactive decay
which is very special.

124
00:06:21,113 --> 00:06:22,957
Which out of those three [types],

125
00:06:22,958 --> 00:06:24,736
Alpha, Beta and Gamma,

126
00:06:24,737 --> 00:06:28,829
Beta is the most mysterious one
or the most mystic [one].

127
00:06:28,830 --> 00:06:30,397
And this is like that.

128
00:06:30,398 --> 00:06:36,076
One of the nucleons inside the nucleus,

129
00:06:36,077 --> 00:06:38,522
decays, as it was shown here.

130
00:06:38,523 --> 00:06:40,506
Oh, let me come back.

131
00:06:40,507 --> 00:06:44,725
To an anti-electron, it is e+ here.

132
00:06:44,726 --> 00:06:47,492
It's not an electron, but an anti-electron.

133
00:06:47,493 --> 00:06:49,730
The electron has a "minus."

134
00:06:49,731 --> 00:06:51,507
And this is an anti-electron.

135
00:06:51,508 --> 00:06:53,490
This is something which,

136
00:06:53,491 --> 00:06:57,115
if it touched the electron,

137
00:06:57,116 --> 00:06:59,012
then annihilation [would] occur,

138
00:06:59,013 --> 00:07:01,541
and you would have energy.

139
00:07:01,542 --> 00:07:06,746
So now, which is already used in the world,

140
00:07:06,747 --> 00:07:09,040
you can cheat a little,

141
00:07:09,041 --> 00:07:11,399
and make, for example, radioactive sugar,

142
00:07:11,400 --> 00:07:13,320
instead of usual sugar.

143
00:07:13,321 --> 00:07:15,438
The radioactive sugar is just sugar,

144
00:07:15,439 --> 00:07:19,086
made, for example, with fluorine,

145
00:07:19,087 --> 00:07:21,359
but instead of usual fluorine,

146
00:07:21,360 --> 00:07:23,566
you take radioactive fluorine,

147
00:07:23,567 --> 00:07:25,921
which then emits positrons,

148
00:07:25,922 --> 00:07:27,771
those anti-electrons.

149
00:07:27,772 --> 00:07:30,504
And you [can] administer that
to the patient

150
00:07:30,505 --> 00:07:32,207
like you see in that picture.

151
00:07:32,208 --> 00:07:34,942
And then, all the processes with the sugar

152
00:07:34,943 --> 00:07:36,413
which occur in the body,

153
00:07:36,414 --> 00:07:39,615
are exactly the same
as with the usual sugar,

154
00:07:39,616 --> 00:07:41,822
but from time to time you have a signal

155
00:07:41,823 --> 00:07:43,397
from the interior of the body,

156
00:07:43,398 --> 00:07:46,756
because this decay happens there.

157
00:07:46,757 --> 00:07:49,058
And now, if you look --

158
00:07:49,059 --> 00:07:51,371
If this decay happens somewhere,

159
00:07:51,372 --> 00:07:54,355
you have this anti-electron.

160
00:07:54,356 --> 00:07:55,609
If it touches the electron --

161
00:07:55,610 --> 00:07:56,862
we are in the first order,

162
00:07:56,863 --> 00:08:00,462
from electrons
and those nuclei, nothing else.

163
00:08:00,463 --> 00:08:02,344
So if it touches this electron,

164
00:08:02,345 --> 00:08:05,808
then they annihilate,
because it was matter and antimatter.

165
00:08:05,809 --> 00:08:07,760
And those two photons,

166
00:08:07,761 --> 00:08:09,307
two gamma quanta,

167
00:08:09,308 --> 00:08:13,197
are flying in a line,
apart from each other.

168
00:08:13,198 --> 00:08:14,797
And they are energetic,

169
00:08:14,798 --> 00:08:17,735
energetic enough to go through atoms.

170
00:08:17,736 --> 00:08:21,125
So they can go outside of the body.

171
00:08:21,126 --> 00:08:25,562
And now, we are close
to the explanation of that word.

172
00:08:25,563 --> 00:08:27,256
So we had a positron,

173
00:08:27,257 --> 00:08:28,592
we had emission,

174
00:08:28,593 --> 00:08:30,156
and now we have detectors,

175
00:08:30,157 --> 00:08:32,530
so we have Positron Emission Tomography,

176
00:08:32,531 --> 00:08:33,859
with those detectors.

177
00:08:33,860 --> 00:08:37,146
Now it's enough to put [detectors]
around the human body,

178
00:08:37,147 --> 00:08:41,227
which are capable of detecting
those gamma quanta.

179
00:08:41,228 --> 00:08:46,379
And you can [take] a picture
of the interior of the body,

180
00:08:46,380 --> 00:08:49,461
or [first of all], you can [take] a picture

181
00:08:49,462 --> 00:08:55,232
of where those sugars
were distributed around the organism.

182
00:08:55,233 --> 00:08:58,514
And now, you may wonder
how one can do that.

183
00:08:58,515 --> 00:09:01,394
I have an easy example, the simplest one.

184
00:09:01,395 --> 00:09:04,645
Let's assume [all] the sugar administered

185
00:09:04,646 --> 00:09:08,153
was just absorbed
in one place in the brain.

186
00:09:08,154 --> 00:09:11,813
Let's say that
that [unfortunate] person had a [tumor],

187
00:09:11,814 --> 00:09:15,462
and this was absorbed
really point-like, in one place.

188
00:09:15,463 --> 00:09:19,719
Then, it's very easy to imagine
how you can [take] a picture

189
00:09:19,720 --> 00:09:21,117
of that brain, or that point,

190
00:09:21,118 --> 00:09:23,379
Because what we measure --
(Camera shutter sound)

191
00:09:23,380 --> 00:09:28,774
Let's say those points,
those blue rectangles, are detectors.

192
00:09:28,775 --> 00:09:30,931
Something which can register.

193
00:09:30,932 --> 00:09:33,212
OK, a bulb.

194
00:09:33,213 --> 00:09:37,027
If you put a current into the bulb,
then you see the light.

195
00:09:37,028 --> 00:09:39,999
If you put the light to the detectors,
you see the current.

196
00:09:40,000 --> 00:09:42,170
Shall I say, it's an anti-bulb.

197
00:09:42,171 --> 00:09:46,723
So what [do] we have? We...

198
00:09:46,724 --> 00:09:48,221
We [administered] a sugar,

199
00:09:48,222 --> 00:09:50,299
then that sugar is sometimes
decaying somewhere.

200
00:09:50,300 --> 00:09:53,518
In that case, it's always decaying here.

201
00:09:53,519 --> 00:09:55,664
And we measured the signal here and here.

202
00:09:55,665 --> 00:09:57,180
There is a lot of cables there.

203
00:09:57,181 --> 00:09:59,355
But we know it was here and here.

204
00:09:59,356 --> 00:10:02,626
So what we do is to plot a line.

205
00:10:02,627 --> 00:10:06,804
But we don't know
[where] this sugar was, along this line.

206
00:10:06,805 --> 00:10:09,803
But it's of course decaying
in different directions. (Shutter sound)

207
00:10:09,804 --> 00:10:12,642
So it's enough to have
two such lines, (Shutter sound)

208
00:10:12,643 --> 00:10:14,601
and you know the point.

209
00:10:14,602 --> 00:10:16,559
So now it's very easy to imagine

210
00:10:16,560 --> 00:10:20,184
that you can [take]
such a picture of the [whole] body.

211
00:10:20,185 --> 00:10:22,701
OK, it's not as easy
as I plot it now, but...

212
00:10:22,702 --> 00:10:24,747
(Laughter)

213
00:10:24,748 --> 00:10:28,592
But it's imaginable.

214
00:10:28,593 --> 00:10:31,659
And this is how a person sees that.

215
00:10:31,660 --> 00:10:34,312
So you put [them into a] plastic box,

216
00:10:34,313 --> 00:10:40,390
and then on the screen
you have [an image] of your brain.

217
00:10:40,391 --> 00:10:42,666
But now, what is the problem to be solved,

218
00:10:42,667 --> 00:10:44,535
or what is the challenge here.

219
00:10:44,536 --> 00:10:47,469
The challenge is that such devices
are very expensive,

220
00:10:47,470 --> 00:10:50,630
20 million Polish zlotys. That's one.

221
00:10:50,631 --> 00:10:54,692
So there is only a few of them in Poland.

222
00:10:54,693 --> 00:10:56,271
They are short.

223
00:10:56,272 --> 00:11:01,195
It means you cannot make
an image of the whole person.

224
00:11:01,196 --> 00:11:02,730
As you saw in this picture,

225
00:11:02,731 --> 00:11:07,781
there are short rings around the patient.

226
00:11:07,782 --> 00:11:11,310
And now, there is one more problem,
or a challenge.

227
00:11:11,311 --> 00:11:17,484
How to improve the sharpness of that image?

228
00:11:17,485 --> 00:11:22,810
And now, please look at that picture here.

229
00:11:22,811 --> 00:11:26,623
This is a picture
that I would like to [use] to [explain]

230
00:11:26,624 --> 00:11:29,888
the problem with the smearing of the image.

231
00:11:29,889 --> 00:11:34,142
So, let's say this anti-electron

232
00:11:34,143 --> 00:11:37,257
touched an electron here,
we had two photons,

233
00:11:37,258 --> 00:11:40,522
two gamma quanta,
and they react here and here.

234
00:11:40,523 --> 00:11:42,324
But we don't know this.

235
00:11:42,325 --> 00:11:46,199
We know only that it was
somewhere in the detector.

236
00:11:46,200 --> 00:11:49,917
Because we have here a cable,
and the signal from the detector.

237
00:11:49,918 --> 00:11:52,168
Ah, sorry.

238
00:11:52,169 --> 00:11:54,580
(Camera shutter sounds)

239
00:11:54,581 --> 00:11:56,846
Sorry.

240
00:11:56,847 --> 00:11:59,517
So now, what we can plot

241
00:11:59,518 --> 00:12:01,676
is the line from the middle of the detector

242
00:12:01,677 --> 00:12:03,441
to the middle of the detector.

243
00:12:03,442 --> 00:12:05,049
So we make a mistake.

244
00:12:05,050 --> 00:12:09,049
Because, in that case,
we know the true line is here,

245
00:12:09,050 --> 00:12:10,730
but we reconstruct that line.

246
00:12:10,731 --> 00:12:14,646
And this caused the smearing of the image.

247
00:12:14,647 --> 00:12:18,599
So now, there is one trivial way
to overcome this.

248
00:12:18,600 --> 00:12:23,319
The trivial way is to make these detectors
smaller and smaller,

249
00:12:23,320 --> 00:12:26,053
but then you increase
and increase the cost,

250
00:12:26,054 --> 00:12:29,771
because you increase
the number of the bulbs.

251
00:12:29,772 --> 00:12:33,536
And this is, now, the idea I had.

252
00:12:33,537 --> 00:12:36,561
Just, instead of making that,

253
00:12:36,562 --> 00:12:38,964
let's change the paradigm completely.

254
00:12:38,965 --> 00:12:42,932
Let's use a huge block
instead of small pieces.

255
00:12:42,933 --> 00:12:47,585
And let's try to find something out

256
00:12:47,586 --> 00:12:53,047
when the gamma heated the detector inside.

257
00:12:53,048 --> 00:13:00,271
And this is just the idea,
which is the direct transfer

258
00:13:00,272 --> 00:13:03,570
of the detectors we have
in that experiment.

259
00:13:03,571 --> 00:13:04,910
This is one of the experiments

260
00:13:04,911 --> 00:13:09,602
I spent perhaps 15 years researching.

261
00:13:09,603 --> 00:13:14,122
And with those detectors
we were studying those mesons.

262
00:13:14,123 --> 00:13:15,388
And we were measuring --

263
00:13:15,389 --> 00:13:17,499
this is part of the accelerator --

264
00:13:17,500 --> 00:13:19,290
we were measuring the time

265
00:13:19,291 --> 00:13:22,253
[in which] particles
travel from there to here.

266
00:13:22,254 --> 00:13:24,799
This is nanoseconds, a very short time.

267
00:13:24,800 --> 00:13:26,400
But if you look at that --

268
00:13:26,401 --> 00:13:32,191
These were strips of plastic material

269
00:13:32,192 --> 00:13:34,775
which allowed to measure the particles.

270
00:13:34,776 --> 00:13:38,312
In a closer view,
it may be plotted like that.

271
00:13:38,313 --> 00:13:40,403
You have a strip of the material.

272
00:13:40,404 --> 00:13:44,061
If something hits it,
a particle, a gamma quantum,

273
00:13:44,062 --> 00:13:45,695
then there is a light inside,

274
00:13:45,696 --> 00:13:47,253
and if it is in the middle,

275
00:13:47,254 --> 00:13:49,245
then the time of the light signal
to that side,

276
00:13:49,246 --> 00:13:52,706
to this bulb, and to that bulb,
is the same.

277
00:13:52,707 --> 00:13:55,838
If it is closer to that --

278
00:13:55,839 --> 00:13:58,097
"PM" is not the abbreviation of my name,

279
00:13:58,098 --> 00:13:59,636
it is "photomultiplier."

280
00:13:59,637 --> 00:14:01,227
(Laughter)

281
00:14:01,228 --> 00:14:02,758
If it is closer to that,

282
00:14:02,759 --> 00:14:05,649
then this time is shorter,
this time is longer.

283
00:14:05,650 --> 00:14:07,526
So from the difference of times,

284
00:14:07,527 --> 00:14:11,239
you can define
when this gamma quantum really hit it.

285
00:14:11,240 --> 00:14:12,290
Very simple.

286
00:14:12,291 --> 00:14:16,059
This is used in all physics experiments,

287
00:14:16,060 --> 00:14:18,449
particle and nuclear physics experiments.

288
00:14:18,450 --> 00:14:22,704
And now, the only thing to [do was],

289
00:14:22,705 --> 00:14:26,172
how to make a tomograph [out of that].

290
00:14:26,173 --> 00:14:31,459
And then, this is again something
like reinventing the circle,

291
00:14:31,460 --> 00:14:35,064
one can think of taking
this wall of those strips,

292
00:14:35,065 --> 00:14:38,928
and making a cylinder out of that.

293
00:14:38,929 --> 00:14:42,220
And now, you have those strips.

294
00:14:42,221 --> 00:14:43,994
You can put a bulb here, a bulb there,

295
00:14:43,995 --> 00:14:48,505
so you know when this gamma
from the human body hit, and in which way.

296
00:14:48,506 --> 00:14:51,045
You can put a patient here, inside.

297
00:14:51,046 --> 00:14:52,853
This can be large.

298
00:14:52,854 --> 00:14:56,572
The number of those photomultipliers,
of those bulbs,

299
00:14:56,573 --> 00:14:59,171
does not increase when you enlarge that.

300
00:14:59,172 --> 00:15:02,066
You may make this as large as you like.

301
00:15:02,067 --> 00:15:07,254
Even more, you can make
more of such cylinders.

302
00:15:07,255 --> 00:15:11,881
And then, you can increase the probability

303
00:15:11,882 --> 00:15:17,770
of detecting these gamma quanta.

304
00:15:17,771 --> 00:15:22,230
So now, the dream which we are trying
to realize with my colleagues,

305
00:15:22,231 --> 00:15:27,641
is to build such a tomograph,
which would allow for

306
00:15:27,642 --> 00:15:30,984
such molecular imaging
of the whole human body.

307
00:15:30,985 --> 00:15:32,594
Now it's clear.

308
00:15:32,595 --> 00:15:34,500
But now, what --

309
00:15:34,501 --> 00:15:35,610
(Beep)

310
00:15:35,611 --> 00:15:37,828
What is with that?

311
00:15:37,829 --> 00:15:39,427
(Phone rings twice)

312
00:15:39,428 --> 00:15:41,657
Now, you may believe it or not,

313
00:15:41,658 --> 00:15:44,216
I conceived [of] that cylinder

314
00:15:44,217 --> 00:15:48,800
out of that detector which you saw.

315
00:15:48,801 --> 00:15:53,430
But then, I realized that I was working
in collaboration with

316
00:15:53,431 --> 00:15:56,259
a laboratory who has such a cylinder.

317
00:15:56,260 --> 00:15:57,977
This is the one in Italy.

318
00:15:57,978 --> 00:16:00,963
4 meters large, with scintillators,
with those materials,

319
00:16:00,964 --> 00:16:03,437
and we are [doing] experiments there.

320
00:16:03,438 --> 00:16:07,373
Then, when preparing this talk...

321
00:16:07,374 --> 00:16:12,100
Oh, that again. (Phone rings once)

322
00:16:12,101 --> 00:16:15,444
I realized that I was
working on an experiment

323
00:16:15,445 --> 00:16:19,574
which had such a huge
barrel of scintillator.

324
00:16:19,575 --> 00:16:21,714
And I am working on another experiment,

325
00:16:21,715 --> 00:16:23,559
which when you look inside,

326
00:16:23,560 --> 00:16:26,606
there is again a barrel of scintillator.

327
00:16:26,607 --> 00:16:31,000
So, you may [see] here how large
those barrels are.

328
00:16:31,001 --> 00:16:34,715
A person could even walk inside,
if this [worked].

329
00:16:34,716 --> 00:16:38,860
So there is a chance to really
[make] such a tomograph,

330
00:16:38,861 --> 00:16:41,869
especially that such technology
is used nowadays,

331
00:16:41,870 --> 00:16:44,486
in particle and nuclear physics.

332
00:16:44,487 --> 00:16:47,624
And I hope, like Rafał told us,

333
00:16:47,625 --> 00:16:50,243
that somebody will take
his message seriously,

334
00:16:50,244 --> 00:16:55,388
and somebody clever
will just make this tomograph

335
00:16:55,389 --> 00:16:58,083
in some groups which are rich enough

336
00:16:58,084 --> 00:17:00,295
to build all those bulbs, and so on.

337
00:17:00,296 --> 00:17:01,951
But independently,

338
00:17:01,952 --> 00:17:06,029
I and my colleagues are trying
to do that here in Cracow.

339
00:17:06,030 --> 00:17:08,296
And then...

340
00:17:08,297 --> 00:17:10,452
(Phone rings twice)

341
00:17:10,453 --> 00:17:13,678
This is just to point
to the end of my talk.

342
00:17:13,679 --> 00:17:14,742
Thank you very much.

343
00:17:14,743 --> 00:17:15,723
(Applause)

344
99:59:59,999 --> 99:59:59,999
testing