WEBVTT 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 The great texts of the ancient world 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 don't survive to us in their original form. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 They survive because Medieval scribes copied them 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and copied them and copied them. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And so it is which Archimedes, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 the great Greek mathematician. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Everything we know about Archimedes as a mathematician 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 we know about because of just three books, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and they're called A, B and C. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And A was lost by an Italian humanist in 1564. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And B was last heard of in the Pope's Library 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 about a hundred miles north of Rome in [unclear] in 1311. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now Codex C was only discovered in 1906, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and it landed on my desk in Baltimore 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 on the 19th of January, 1999. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And this is Codex C here. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now Codex C is actually buried in this book. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 It's buried treasure. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Because this book is actually a prayer book. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 It was finished by a guy called Johannes Myrones 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 on the 14th of April, 2029. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And to make his prayer book he used parchment. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 But he didn't use new parchment, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 he used parchment recycled from earlier manuscripts, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and there were seven of them. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And Archimedes Codex C was just one of those seven. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 He took apart the Archimedes manuscript and the other seven manuscripts. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 He erased all of their texts, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and then he cut the sheets down in the middle, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 he shuffled them up, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and he rotated them 90 degrees, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and he wrote prayers on top of these books. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And essentially these seven manuscripts 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 disappeared for 700 years, and we have a prayer book. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 The prayer book was discovered by this guy, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Johan Ludvig Heiberg, in 1906. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And with just a magnifying glass, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 he transcribed as much of the text as he could. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And the thing is that he found two texts in this manuscript 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 that were unique texts. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 They weren't an A and B at all; 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 they were completely new texts by Archimedes, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and they were called "The Method" and "The Stomachion." 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And it became a world famous manuscript. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now it should be clear by now 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 that this book is in bad condition. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 It got in worse condition in the 20th century 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 after Heiberg saw it. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Forgeries were painted over it, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and it suffered very badly from mold. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 This book is the definition of a write-off. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 It's the sort of book 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 that you thought would be in an institution. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 But it's not in an institution, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 it was bought by a private owner in 1998. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Why did he buy this book? 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Because he wanted to make that which was fragile safe. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 He wanted to make that which was unique ubiquitous. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 He wanted to make that which was expensive free. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And he wanted to do this as a matter of principle. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Because not many people are really going to read Archimedes in ancient Greek, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 but they should have the chance to do it. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 So he gathered around himself the friends of Archimedes, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and he promised to pay for all the work. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And it was an expensive job, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 but actually it wouldn't be as much as you think 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 because these people, they didn't come for money, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 they came for Archimedes. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And they came from all sorts of different backgrounds. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 They came in from particle physics, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 they came from classical philology, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 they came from book conservation, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 they came from ancient mathematics, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 they came from data management, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 they came from scientific imaging and program management. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And they got together to work on this manuscript. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 The first problem was a conservation problem. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And this is the sort of thing that we had to deal with. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 There was glue on the spine of the book. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And if you look at this photograph carefully, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 the bottom half of this rather brown. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And that glue is hide glue. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now if you're a conservator, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 you can take off this glue reasonably easily. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 The top half is Elmer's wood glue. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 It's polyvinyl acetate emulsion. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 It doesn't dissolve in water once it's dry. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And it's much tougher than the parchment that it was written on. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And so before we could start imagining Archimedes, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 we had to take this book apart. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 So it took four years to take it off. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And this is a rare action shot, ladies and gentlemen. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 (Laughter) 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Another thing is that we had to get rid of all the wax, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 because this was used in the liturgical services 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 of the Greek Orthodox Church 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and they'd used candle wax. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And the candle wax was dirty, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and we couldn't image through the wax. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 So very carefully we had to mechanically scrape off all the wax. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 It's hard to tell you exactly 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 how bad the condition of this book is, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 but it came out in little bits very often. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And normally in a book, you wouldn't worry about the little bits, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 but these little bits might contain unique Archimedes text. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 So tiny fragments 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 we actually managed to put back in the right place. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Then, having done that, we started to image the manuscript. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And we imaged the manuscript 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 in 14 different wave-bands of light. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Because if you look at something in different wave-bands of light, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 you see different things. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And here is an image of a page 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 imaged in 14 different wave-bands of light. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 But none of them worked. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 So what we did was we processed the images together, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and we put two images into one blank screen. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And here are two different images of the Archimedes manuscript. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And the image on the left 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 is the normal red image. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And the image on the right is an ultraviolet image. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And in the image on the right 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 you might be able to see some of the Archimedes writing. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 If you merge them together into one digital canvas, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 the parchment is brightened in both images 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and it comes out bright. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 The prayer book is dark in both images 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and it comes our dark. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 The Archimedes text is dark in one image and bright in another. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And it'll come out dark but red, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and then you can start to read it rather clearly. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And that's what it looks like. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now that's a before and after image, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 but you don't read the image on the screen like that. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 You zoom in and you zoom in 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and you zoom in and you zoom in, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and you can just read it now. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 (Applause) 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 If you process the same two images in a different way, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 you can actually get rid of the prayer book text. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And this is terribly important. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Because the diagrams in the manuscript 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 are the unique source for the diagrams 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 that Archimedes drew in the sand in the fourth century B.C. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And there we are, I can give them to you. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 With this kind of imaging -- 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 this kind of infrared, ultraviolet, invisible light imaging -- 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 we were never going to image through the gold ground forgeries. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 How were we going to to that? 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Well we took the manuscript, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and we decided to image it in X-ray florescence imaging. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 So an X-ray comes in on the diagram on the left 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and it knocks out an electron from the inner shell of an atom. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And that electron disappears. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And as it disappears an electron form a shell farther out 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 jumps in and takes its place. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And when it takes its place, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 it sheds electromagnetic radiation. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 It sheds an X-ray. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And this X-ray is specific in its wavelength 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 to the atom that it hits. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And what we wanted to get 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 was the iron. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Because the ink was written in iron. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And if we can map 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 where this X-ray that comes out, where it comes from, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 we can map all the iron on the page, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and theoretically we can read the image. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 The thing is that you need a very powerful light source to do this. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 So we too it to the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 in California, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 which is a particle accelerator. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Electrons go around one way, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 positrons go around the other. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 They meet in the middle, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and they create subatomic particles 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 like the [unclear] quark and the [unclear] electron. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now we weren't actually going to put Archimedes in that beam. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 But as the electrons go round at the speed of light, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 they shared X-rays. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And this is the most powerful light source in the solar system. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 This is called synchrotron radiation, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and it's normally used to look at things 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 like proteins and that sort of thing. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 But we wanted it to look at atoms, at iron atoms, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 so that we could read the page from before and after. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And low and behold, we found that we could do it. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 It took about 17 minutes to do a single page. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 So what did we discover? 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Well one of the unique texts in Archimedes 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 is called "The Stomachion." 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And this didn't exist in Codices A and B. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And we knew that it involved this square. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And this is a perfect square, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and it's divided into 14 bits. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 But no one knew what Archimedes was doing with these 14 bits. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And now we think we know. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 He was trying to work out 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 how many ways you can recombine those 14 bits 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and still make a perfect square. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Anyone want to guess the answer? 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 It's 17,152 divided in 536 families. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And the important point about this 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 is that it's earliest study in combinatorics in mathematics. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And combinatorics is a wonderful and interesting branch of mathematics. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 The really astonishing thing though about this manuscript 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 is that we looked at the other manuscripts 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 that the palimpsester had made, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 the scribe had made his book out of 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and one of the was a manuscript containing text by Hyperides. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now Hyperides was an Athenian orator from the fourth century B.C. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 He was an exact contemporary of Demosthenes. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And in 338 B.C. he and Demosthenes together 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 decided that they wanted to stand up 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 to the military might of Philip of Macedon. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 So Athens and Thebes went out to fight Philip of Macedon. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 This was a bad idea 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 because Philip of Macedon had a son called Alexander the Great, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and they lost the battle of Chaeronea. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Alexander the Great went on to conquer the known world; 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Hyperides found himself on trial for treason. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And this is the speech that he gave when he was on trial. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And it's a great speech. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 "Best of all," he says, "is to win. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 But if you can't win, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 then you should fight for a noble cause, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 because then you'll be remembered. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Consider the Spartans. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 They won enumerable victories, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 but no one remembers what they are 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 because they were all fought for selfish ends. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 The won battle that the Spartans fought that everybody remembers 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 is the the battle of Thermopylae 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 where they were butchered to a man, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 but fought for the freedom of Greece." 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 It was such a great speech 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 that the Athenian law courts let him off. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 He lived for another 10 years, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 then the Macedonian faction caught up with him. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 They cut out his tongue in mockery of his oratory, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and no one knows what they did with his body. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 So this is the discovery of a lost voice from antiquity, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 speaking to us, not from the grave, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 because his grave doesn't exist, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 but from the Athenian law courts. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now I should say at this point 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 that normally when you're looking 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 at Medieval manuscripts that have been scraped off, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 you don't find unique texts. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And to find two in one manuscript is really something. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 To find three is completely weird. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And we found three. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Aristotle's "Categories" 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 is one of the foundational texts of Western philosophy. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And we found a third century A.D. commentary on it, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 possibly by Galen and probably by Porphyry. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now all this data that we collected, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 all the images, all the raw images, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 all the transcriptions that we made and that sort of thing 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 have been put online under a Creative Commons license 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 for anyone to use for any commercial purpose. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 (Applause) 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Why did the owner of the manuscript do this? 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 He did this because he understands data as well as books. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now the thing to do with books, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 if you want to ensure their long-term utility, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 is to hide them away in closets 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and let very few people look at them. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 The thing to do with data, if you want it to survive, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 is to let it out and have everybody have at it 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 with as little control on that data as possible. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And that's what he did. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And institutions can learn this. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Because institutions at the moment 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 confine their data with copyright restrictions and that sort of thing. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And if you want to look at Medieval manuscripts on the Web, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 at the moment you have to go to the National Library of WISE sites 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 or the University Library of X's site, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 which is about the most boring way 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 in which you can deal with digital data. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 What you want to do is to aggregate it all together. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Because the Web of the ancient manuscripts of the future 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 isn't going to be built by institutions. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 It's going to be built by users, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 by people who get this data together, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 by people who want to aggregate all sorts of maps 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 from wherever they come from, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 all sorts of Medieval romances 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 from wherever they come from, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 people who just want to curate their own glorious selection 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 of beautiful things. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And that is the future of the Web. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And it's an attractive and beautiful future, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 if only we can make it happen. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now we at the Walters Art Museum have followed this example, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and we have put up all our manuscripts on the Web 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 for people to enjoy -- 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 all the raw data, all the descriptions, all the metadata. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 under a Creative Commons license. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now the Walters Art Museum is a small museum 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and it has beautiful manuscripts, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 but the data is fantastic. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And the result of this 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 is that if you do a Google search on images right now 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and you type in "Illuminated manuscript Koran" for example, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 24 of the 28 images you'll find come from my institution. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 (Applause) 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now, let's think about this for a minute. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 What's in it for the institution? 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 There are all sorts of things that are in it for the institution. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 You can talk about the Humanities and that sort of thing, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 but let's talk about selfish things. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Because what's really in it for the institution is this. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now why do people go to the Louvre? 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 They go to see the Mona Lisa. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Why do they go to see the Mona Lisa? 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Because they already know what she looks like. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And they know what she looks like 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 because they've seen pictures of her absolutely everywhere. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Now, there is no need 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 for these restrictions at all. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 And I think that institutions should stand up 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and release all their data under unrestricted licenses, 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and it would be a great benefit to everybody. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Why don't we just let everybody have access to this data 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and curate their own collection 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 of ancient knowledge and wonderful and beautiful things 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 and increase the beauty and the cultural significance 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 of the internet. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 Thank you very much indeed. 99:59:59.999 --> 99:59:59.999 (Applause)