In this last part in our series of lectures
on computer organization, let us take a look

at the bus.

What is a bus?

So far we had seen the blocks of CPU, memory,
I/O and the interconnecting bus.

On more than one occasion, I had pointed out
that we have to evolve some kind of standardization

so that the system from the bus we will see
something uniform because you may be having

different types of memory systems and you
may be having different types of devices but

the CPU must see something uniform on the
bus on the bus end.

In spite of all these, though we talk about
standards, we would find that there are different

standards; obviously because the CPU and memory
work at some rate different from I/O.

If at all CPU is directly involved, that is
going to be at another rate; then, memory

I/O will be a different rate; and in I/O,
you have a spectrum from the lowest K speed

to the fastest one.

So generally, we would find that there are
different types of buses and when a processor

comes with some brand name in the market,
you would find that that particular manufacturer

comes out with its own bus also.

By the time that particular bus gets standardized,
you would find that the bus is no longer very

relevant, mainly because the processor is
outdated.

Nevertheless, we can always talk in the case
of bus; in general, about the specifications

of the bus.

Here there are certain things which you may
find are common and there are certain things

which would keep varying.

Now while specifying a bus, what exactly is
the bus; what is it we have talked about earlier?

We have always said a bus is a set of signal
lines.

We had introduced the bus as a set of signal
lines.

Bus in fact is a term introduced by Americans;
earlier the British used to call it highway.

Now that particular term is coming in a different
context like super highway for information

and so on.

Earlier they were calling it highway.

Essentially on a highway something moves;
but Americans used the bus.

Now in the case of computer system, we can
say the bus is like a highway over which the

data moves – there is some communication.

But Americans called it bus – since bus
is a set of signal lines, these signal lines

are carried over lines, which form conductors.

So the bus has conductors and a bus is usually
long; while trying to meet an electrical specification,

you will find that you would need some current
amplifiers, we call them current drivers.

That means along with the bus or as part of
a bus, you have drivers.

So you can see that a bus has drivers and
conductors and we are quite familiar with

the term bus.

Now let us go into certain aspects of the
specifications.

There are actually three types of specifications
but usually in computer organization, or we

may say even computer scientists will be concerned
more with only one thing.

That particular thing is called the logical
specification of the bus.

In fact all the time when we were talking
about some transfer over the bus, we were

indicating this.

What is it we said earlier?

We said the CPU places address on the bus
and if it were a read cycle, the CPU also

places a read signal on the bus, and then
the memory responds with data and it puts

it on the bus.

CPU, of course, reads it in.

So you can see that there is generation of
address, signal generation of read signal

and strobing the data that’s available.

This is what we were talking about all the
time.

Now what is the data?

Data is a pattern of 1s and 0s; it is a string
of 1s and 0s.

Similarly address also is a string.

So all the time we were only talking about
the logical aspect of it because we never

said the data which is 1 means say 1 volt;
0 means say 0 volts or any such thing; we

did not talk about any physical, real-world
quantity.

We were not referring to any physical quantity.

We are talking about a read as a read signal,
write as a write signal.

We never said read means what must be the
voltage and so on and so forth.

So that is what we are talking about when
we talk about the logical specification; another

thing as you would have noticed is that we
are talking about sequence of actions.

What are the things we were mentioning?

We said first address, then read and then
the data comes, which is strobed, so we were

talking about sequence also.

In other words, the sequence of actions which
is part of what we refer to as bus protocol,

is only one specific way in which this read
or write can be performed.

So we talk about logical signals involved
and then we also talk about the sequence in

which the signals must be generated.

Now generally when we discuss the bus in computer
science, or from a computer scientist’s

point of view, we will always be concerned
with these logical aspects.

But later as I was just trying to point out,
there are two things: one is the electrical

specification.

So when we talk about the electrical specification
of the bus, I have to say for instance what

does 1 mean?

Do 1 and 0 there refer to say some voltage
signals or current signals or some other signals?

And if for instance 1 and 0 will be represented
by plus 5 V and 0 V or 3 V, plus 3 V and plus

0.2 V or let us say plus 15 V and minus 15
V.

All these things really refer to the physical
quantities.

They would come into the electrical specification
of the bus.

It is not enough if we say that the address
is placed.

We have to specify exactly what must be the
levels of the voltage or current signals.

Essentially we can just put it as physical
specification, but then the mechanical specification

of the bus also has to be specified.

So together, these two form the physical part
of the bus and this forms the logical part

of the bus.

One talks about the electrical signal levels
and so on, the other one talks about the mechanical

thing.

So this would say how long the bus conductor
can be and what sort of edge connector is

used – is it something like 32 pin or 62
pin and if it is this pin, is it a parallel

or are the pins parallel or staggered, etc.

For instance, if we talk about the standard
bus, we have specification along all the three

dimensions.

If we say multi-bus, there is a specific multi-bus
connector and each of the multi-bus signals

is going to be defined in terms of some electrical
voltage current and so on.

And then we also talk about this particular
one.

So essentially we will only concentrate on
this.

But let us not forget that there are these
specifications also; somebody must concern

with this; otherwise there is no standard.

Now why must we be concerned even down to
the level of mechanical?

That is mainly because this is the one which
is going to give freedom to the user.

So if we say use multi-bus one connector or
multi-bus two connectors or some other X bus,

new bus, and then all he does is he goes to
the shop and ask for that connector and then

brings it and then machine properly without
any difficulty.

He is not going to be bothered about either
logical aspect or electrical aspect; for him,

when he keys in, there must be a display and
that particular display must mean something

to him at a higher level.

Having said that, we will be concentrating
on the logical aspects of this bus.

We can note that essentially there are again
three sections.

The first one we may say is concerned with
the data transfer.

This is the one we keep talking all that time
about.

That is, we say that the CPU places address,
indicates what type of transfer, read or write,

input or output, whatever it wants, and then
memory or I/O responds.

So all these things: placing the address,
placing the appropriate control signal, and

then passing on the data will come under the
data transfer aspect.

Now as the CPU is involved in this data transfer
because what is going on in any instruction

cycle again and again is the same thing, fetching
an instruction, interpreting, executing, as

part of executing fetching a data, that is,
instruction or data fetching – it all comes

under the data transfer.

This is what is going on in every instruction
cycle.

Now this is the essential thing as far as
the processor is concerned.

As this goes on some other device may indicate
that it is ready; in the case of interrupt,

is it not.

Now in a system which has n number of devices,
that is, multiple devices, we also said that

we have to look in to the priority among these
when there is a multiple request for this

CPU attention.

So we have to basically see that there is
priority checking and so on.

We may put this particular one as priority
arbitration; meaning as CPU is busy with the

transfer, then possibly there is some other
specialized hardware unit, which looks into

the action.

Priority arbitration can go on in parallel
with the data transfer.

For instance as part of the some instruction
cycle, when one of the n devices or two of

the devices indicate that readiness, then
there is a conflict.

Now the priority arbitrator will look in to
the requests and then will choose the higher

priority device between those two so that
when the instruction cycle is complete it

can go ahead, that is, in the case of interrupt.

So priority arbitration is another piece of
action that goes on and we will have dedicated

signal lines as part of the bus because then
only two things can go on in parallel; otherwise

it is not possible.

If the same sets of signal lines are going
to be used, one has to keep idling.

For instance that was the situation in the
case of DMA.

The I/O is directly accessing the memory so
CPU is going out of action.

The third aspect of this bus we may just put
in general as initialization.

Different people may call it differently.

What exactly we mean here is something to
do with checking about the power, the system

clock, and few other signal lines, which really
not take direct part in data transfer or priority

arbitration.

There will be another set of signal lines.

We may just call them for instance system
reset signal.

So that can come under the initialization
and a few other things: system clock, system

reset, some special signal lines, monitoring
the power – all these things will come under

this.

So we as we talk about the data transfer;
we should also take a look at what is going

on in this and also know the functions of
some of these because there is no standard

about this particular thing.

So generally when you study any bus, you may
be able to identify a group of signals belonging

to this or this or this category.

Now there are different types of buses, we
may say.

Actually I am not talking about just the standard
buses here.

I am just trying to give what you may call
a generic or general classification.

What are the various things involved?

For instance, we are not talking about multi-bus
or a new bus or uni-bus or a mass bus and

so on; we are discussing purely from functional
point of view.

Now we know that CPU and memory, both work
at electronic speed.

So it is meaningful to have a processor memory
bus and have it somewhat different, distinct

from what you may call the second one as an
I/O bus mainly because in the case of processor

memory, the transfer is going to be very fast
whereas in the case of I/O bus, we do not

know.

We have devices with varying speeds, characteristics,
and what not.

Then there is another bus also that we talk
about; that is generally called a back plane

bus.

In some systems we may not able to identify
them separately.

For instance the processor of the memory bus
itself may act as a back plate bus; it is

not necessary that all the three must exist
in all the systems.

Now let us say some one is looking up the
system with an Intel processor.

Then suited with that particular Intel processor,
there may be certain memory chips.

It is even possible that the manufacturer
of the processor or the CPU has also come

up with a set of memory chips, which would
directly talk in the sense there will be some

special features about that memory.

For instance let us say suppose you have a
processor with multiplexed bus, there is let

us say address and data multiplex.

If you have the memory chips or the memory
controller, which goes with the chip in the

memory bus system, it can take care of the
multiplexing, so that internally it buffers

and then de-multiplexes that.

Then it is meaningful; and so what happens
is this processor memory bus essentially we

may say is a short bus and also it is a bus
which does transaction as fast as possible.

We can understand fast because, for this processor
utilization to be the highest, maximal, it

must be fast and invariably the processor,
memory, and the bus are interconnecting the

processor memory bus on a single board itself.

That is why invariably we define that particular
thing as a short bus and there may not be

any standard about this also.

For an Intel processor, there may be a set
of things; for a Motorola processor there

may be another set of things.

It is all because of the signals that are
generated by the respective processor.

We can say that this processor memory bus
is a proprietary bus because we have a specific

processor and then we have specific memory
requirement; it is not open for the general

use.

Now in the case of I/O bus, it is a different
story.

First of all, we have different types of devices
to be connected; and second thing is that

whereas in the case of processor memory even
at the time of the design it is known how

much of memory it has, at the time of the
system installation, we do not know how many

devices we want – may be during installation
we would like to add a few more devices.

Generally we would find this I/O bus is in
contrast with the other one.

I/O bus will be a long and slow bus; slow
because essentially it is concerned with the

I/O part.

Generally it is lower compared with the other
one, which is the processor memory bus, and

it is also a long bus because you may have
to have many connectors for the expansion

of these devices and so on.

So we have a range of speeds to be taken care
of in the I/O; it is more or less standardized

in the processor memory.

The user is not directly concerned with this
whereas the user is very much concerned with

this.

And the third one, the back plane bus, is
on the PC board itself.

You have the set of signal lines connected
that is why it has derived the name back plane.

As I said in some systems the back plane bus
itself may be the processor memory bus.

So through a few system configurations we
will just see the essential difference between

these back plane buses.

But we take it as the back plane bus is one
in which you have the entire set of signal

lines on the PCB itself; so that is how it
got the name back plane.

Now regarding the requirements, it so happens
that there are two requirements for a bus

and they seem to be also conflicting.

We generally talk about bus latency.

What is the bus latency?

Whenever there is a requirement of the bus
for a data transfer, you would like to see

that the bus is made available as fast as
possible for the specific requirement.

So we would have to see that the bus latency
time must be minimized.

The time associated with the bus latency must
be minimized; that is, whenever there is a

request for the bus, the bus must be made
available with the least delay possible.

Then the other factor is the bus bandwidth.

This particular one conveys to us that if
the bandwidth is high, more data can be transferred;

that is, there is more efficient utilization.

Now more data can be transferred 
if we can bunch all the data, buffer it and

then send it with the least amount of interaction
asking for address, control, things like that.

As we have seen for instance in the DMA, the
data is ready and available and then, like

a machine gun, it keeps going.

Every time we do not have to keep checking.

So the bus bandwidth can be increased by what
we say as buffering the data and transmitting

block of data so that the time that is generally
lost between two blocks or pieces of data

can be further minimized.

So there is buffering or storing more data
before the actual transmission starts.

So what we exactly gain here is that before
the transmission, there may be some overheads

and delay, but then there should not be any
delay once the transmission starts, and once

it starts, it goes very fast.

While buffering a block and transmitting blocks
of data, you maximize the bandwidth.

Now what happens?

When there is a block data transfer, the bus
is not going to be available for some other

device which requires it.

That is because when the bus is being used
by some other device, the one which requires

the bus is going to wait; that is the reason.

Now as we said the latency must be minimized;
that is, the wait period must be minimized.

We also say that the bus bandwidth must be
maximized.

Now while trying to maximize this, we ended
up buffering the data and then transmitting

the blocks of data; and while trying to maximize
this, we see that the latency gets affected.

That is, the device which requests the bus
has to wait because some other large transfer

is going on.

So these two – bus latency and bus bandwidth
– are actually conflicting requirements,

so there must be some compromise between these;
now this is very important.

Talking about different types of buses from
the timing point of view we talk about synchronous

buses in which the transmission takes place.

It is synchronized with some clock and of
course the asynchronous bus.

We have both types of buses; generally you
will find that when synchronous bus is used

everything must be known a priori.

For instance, in the case of processor–memory
interaction, the speed of the processor and

how exactly memory is organized is known,
whereas when it comes to I/O device we were

not sure.

We may add slow device and fast device later
on also; a priori we will not have everything.

So it may be better to say that it depends
on the individual characteristic of the device.

The bus transmission must be flexible; for
this asynchronous is better.

If everything is known a priori, then we can
make those elements in synchronous, or rather

work in synchronous.

That is, for instance, we have talked about
synchronous action earlier.

Remember in the initial period we are talking
about the states and in each state we were

saying some minimum action was going on.

The minimum action is going on and then the
state itself is being defined by the clock

of the system.

That is in connection with CPU, we are talking
about it.

Remember then we were saying in state T1 the
address is placed; let us say the address

line may be either 1 or 0.

So either it may be this way or it may this
way; actually this particular one refers to

rise time and fall time.

So in T1 the addresses is placed on the bus
and, let us say, in T2 the read control signal

is generated.

The read control signal is generated in T2.

The address has been placed; the read control
signal is generated; let us say that particular

going signal is 0 to 1.

That is, T1 address is placed; T2 wait control
signal is generated; on seeing read, the memory

responds with the data from the location indicated
by the address.

So from now from the memory side this is all
this from the CPU side.

Now to indicate that the memory is different
from these we will call these as the data

coming from the memory or memory dot data.

The data that is coming some time after the
memory sees the control signal read.

So let us say there is some delay.

I am just indicating the delay by this delta.

There is some delay from the time the control
signal is generated to the time the data is

generated.

This data actually refers to the data being
0.

We do not know; may be some bit is 0, some
bit is 1, so we would represent both.

For instance if the memory responds to the
8-bit data, some bits will be 1; some bits

will be 0.

Some bits may continue to be 1; some bits
may continue to be 0.

So when we mark this way, it basically means
it can be 1 or 0; this delta is the delay.

This delay is due to the memory responding
to the control signal read.

There can also be delay introduced by the
memory – that is when we talk about reading

the data; delay with reference to the address
also is possible.

It is not shown here; here only the particular
delay is shown.

Now here you can see that assuming this delta,
the delay, is less than one clock period,

then we say that before T3 comes, this data
can be read.

This indicates that the read control signal
in this says data is available.

That is, we may refer to this as valid data.

We say valid data because before this instant,
the data was not valid; during this instant,

there is some transition.

Now the valid data is available.

The CPU can actually read any time after this
and even before T3.

In this duration, the CPU can strobe it in,
but if you want to be very careful you can

see that at T3 this information is strobed,
meaning, let us say something like this.

For the read control this edge is used; this
edge is used for reading.

If that is so, we say that reading of the
data is synchronized with the clock.

Here this is a clear picture of synchronous
transmission, synchronizing with the T1 clock,

the address is generated; synchronizing with
T2 clock, read control is generated; and in

response to the read control, the memory places
the data on the bus and synchronizing with

T3, the data is read by the CPU.

So this is the synchronized transmission,
which means we know for sure that this delta

is not going to be more than this period.

That is, well before T3, the valid data is
available.

In case this is not available, we had talked
about the situation earlier.

In case before the next clock pulse the valid
data is not available, that means memory is

not responding to this control and address
signals.

It needs more time.

We assume this particular period is 100 nanoseconds
and the memory is delaying let us say by 150

nanoseconds.

That is, only 50 nanoseconds later, the valid
data will be available, which means well before

the next pulse, that is, T4, the data will
be available.

So reading cannot be performed here; so what
will be done?

What can be done is the read control signal
must be further extended beyond and taken

up to T4 because the data is not going to
be available here.

It is going to be available somewhere about
50 nanoseconds later.

So the actual valid data will be available
here itself; that means 1 clock pulse later,

that data can be read.

How is this achieved?

The extension of this read pulse and delaying
the reading is achieved as we had seen earlier.

We said that the CPU can have a ready input,
which can be used by the memory subsystem,

and as soon as the memory system sees the
read pulse, it can immediately say that the

CPU, rather memory, is not ready.

Now on seeing this ready input to the CPU,
on seeing that memory is not ready, then until

it becomes ready for every clock pulse, the
signals generated by the CPU will get extended.

At this point, when the valid data is ready,
that is, somewhere between T3 and T4, when

the memory is ready with the data, the memory
can pull this up again.

So when T4 comes, it sees that the CPU is
ready and reading can be performed at that

point.

So this how it is done.

We had seen this earlier.

That is, T3 is an extra state that is included
as a wait state; that is, the CPU was made

to wait during T3, and that was because of
the ready input to the CPU.

The ready input is generated by the memory.

How and why is it generated?

It is known very well that the CPU’s fast
memory is slow; that means a priori it is

known.

So, on seeing ready input, which is generated
by the CPU as output ready input to the memory,

the memory responds immediately, saying that
it is not going to be ready.

And how much delay is again depending on how
many wait states must be introduced.

Since it is known that more than one state
is not necessary, this will just pan for about

one state.

This is the very clear case of synchronous
transmission.

The CPU memory makes use of a set of signal
lines and the transmission is going on or

communication is going on between CPU and
memory in a synchronized manner; it synchronizes

with every clock edge.

In the case of I/O, we just cannot guarantee
that.

Some buses or devices may be fast, some devices
will be slow.

And it may so happen that half way through
the life cycle of the system, you may bring

in some new device.

We may bring in a new device, which may be
fast or slow.

In those situations, specifically with reference
to the I/O bus, it is meaningful to have an

asynchronous bus; meaning there will be a
signal which says starts the I/O operation

and when the I/O has finished with it, it
can tell that it has finished this job.

If it is a fast device, it is going to tell
very fast, and the CPU will note it.

If it is a slow device, the device is going
to take its own time and then inform.

So the master of the bus can initiate a data
transfer and I/O will take its own time and

then it will communicate saying when it has
finished the job, that is, the transfer.

In other words we can introduce what we may
call us some communication between master

and slave in an interlocked manner; what is
this communication?

The master says perform the data transfer
and then slave responds to it.

So in an interlocked manner you establish
the protocol of the communication.

That is, the master says the data is ready,
now you can take it; the slave says I am taking

and this it says taking it own time.

So we call this master–slave interlocked
communication.

It synchronizes with nothing; it will not
go by the clock.

It need not go by the clock; the clock can
very much be there.

Certainly it is not going to say that in this
time slot something must be done; that restricting

is not there.

We also say that a set of signals that are
used in the interlocked communication would

be something like the master and slave shaking
hands.

So we refer to these signals involved in this
as handshaking signals.

You may be able to appreciate why we say this.

When we meet a person, let us say we say hello.

And then, he also says hello.

Then you shake his hands and say how do you
do.

And he also says how do you do.

It is somewhat like that: the master says
hello, are you there?

The slave says, yes I am here.

Then the master says here is the data; the
slave says I have taken the data.

That means a set of signals involved in this
process are referred to as handshaking signals;

they see to it that the communication goes
in an orderly manner, and for a person who

is not used to speaking very fast, takes his
own time and then responds with the hello

or how do you do, it may be fast; some may
be slow.

The same situation exists here too; in other
words what we need is a few extra signals,

somewhat like this.

The master may place the address – let us
just take a read cycle itself – the master

may place the address and then it may generate
another signal, which says that the address

is placed and that signal will be sensed by
the slave and it will respond saying I was

sensed there, and it will take the address.

Then the master will generate a read signal;
and then the slave knows that from the address,

the slave must read and place the data.

After it places the data, it says now the
data is ready.

The master will respond saying it will take
the valid data that is available on the bus;

some extra signals are introduced.

So in this way, the address is placed; I will
avoid this bipolar signal; I will just using

only one, just to show you the sequence.

Let us say it is something like this.

The address is placed; I am just assuming
only one this thing at some time edge.

Since we have assumed read cycle, let us say
that after the address is placed, the read

signal is 
also introduced.

Now there are different ways in which we can
use a handshake signal; I am just assuming

one specific sequence.

So the address is placed and read is indicated.

From the master point of view, it can indicate
that it wants the slave to respond by reading

the contents of the location, the address
of which is given.

So after it has performed its job, the master
indicates through one hand shake signal; we

will call it MSYNC.

This in fact is an indication 
that it wants reading to be performed by the

slave and it also gives indication of the
address.

On seeing the MSYNC signal, the slave understands
all this, and in response to this, the slave

can respond with the data, that is, the memory.

We assume this is memory response data.

Whatever may be the delay that delay is because
of the memory?

After that delay, it generates the data and
this is now available on the bus – valid

data.

Let us create some space for the other thing.

After the data is placed, in this case the
memory can generate a similar slave SYNC signal

and indicate that after the instant, it will
indicate that

from the point of view of slave, it has done
its job.

The master is indicated by placing address
and read: it is an indication to the slave

that the slave must perform read.

On seeing this master SYNC, the slave has
responded by generating the data and placing

it on the bus.

After it has done its job, the slave is indicating.

Now this SSYNC is the signal given or generated
by the slave.

On seeing this SSYNC signal, the master knows
that whatever it wants is available on the

bus because after this instant, that is, on
seeing the SSYNC signal, the master knows

that the required information is available.

Now the master, on seeing this, will read;
that means, this read signal will continue

certainly beyond this for some time; after
that it will terminate.

That means by this time the master has read
the data, then after it has read the data

the master may terminate its signal, that
is, after this instant when the data has been

read, the master will terminate its signal
and on seeing this, the slave may respond

with a few things.

Suddenly on seeing this MSYNC going negative,
the SSYNC also will be pulled down by the

slave.

This is the indication that the slave knows
that the master has performed its job of reading,

now it is closing the whole show.

So we say that there are two hand shake signals,
one MSYNC asserted by the master is an indication

to the slave that it wants something to be
done and on doing that particular work, the

slave asserts the signal and on seeing the
assertion of SSYNC, MSYNC, the master, concludes

its job of reading and then negates the MSYNC
and on seeing the negation of MSYNC, the slave

also negates it.

So we see that the signals are asserted, that
means the signals are placed and the signals

are negated; that is the signals are removed
and you can see the specific sequence.

Now there is absolutely no clock that need
be used here.

On seeing the signal, the other signal is
generated; on seeing the negation of this

signal, the other signal is generated; and
in between, the required activity is done.

This is the way the ASYNC bus will work and
you need a set of extra signals for this.

These extra signals are something like a clock
because they really do the timing, but it

is not strict clock periods like this.

So generally these are timing signals; that
is about the synchronization.

We will see more about these processes in
the next lecture.