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It's a pleasure to be here

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in Edinburgh, Scotland,

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the birthplace of the needle and syringe.

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Less than a mile from here in this direction,

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in 1853 a Scotsman

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filed his very first patent on the needle and syringe.

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His name was Alexander Wood,

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and it was at the Royal College of Physicians.

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This is the patent.

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What blows my mind when I look at it even today

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is that it looks almost identical

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to the needle in use today.

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Yet, it's 160 years old.

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So we turn to the field of vaccines.

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Most vaccines are delivered with

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the needle and syringe, 
this 160-year-old technology.

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And credit where it's due -- on many levels,

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vaccines are a successful technology.

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After clean water and sanitation,

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vaccines are the one technology that has increased

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our life span the most.

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That's a pretty hard act to beat.

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But just like any other technology,

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vaccines have their shortcomings,

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and the needle and syringe

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is a key part within that narrative --

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this old technology.

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So let's start with the obvious:

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Many of us don't like the needle and syringe.

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I share that view.

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However, 20 percent of the population

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have a thing called needle phobia.

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That's more than disliking the needle;

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that is actively avoiding being vaccinated

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because of needle phobia.

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And that's problematic in terms 
of the rollout of vaccines.

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Now, related to this is another key issue,

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which is needlestick injuries.

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And the WHO has figures

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that suggest about 1.3 million deaths per year

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take place due to cross-contamination

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with needlestick injuries.

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These are early deaths that take place.

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Now, these are two things that 
you probably may have heard of,

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but there are two other shortcomings

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of the needle and syringe you 
may not have heard about.

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One is it could be holding back

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the next generation of vaccines

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in terms of their immune responses.

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And the second is that it could be responsible

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for the problem of the cold chain
that I'll tell you about as well.

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I'm going to tell you about some work

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that my team and I are doing in Australia

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at the University of Queensland

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on a technology designed to 
tackle those four problems.

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And that technology is called the Nanopatch.

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Now, this is a specimen of the Nanopatch.

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To the naked eye

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it just looks like a square

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smaller than a postage stamp,

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but under a microscope

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what you see are thousands of tiny projections

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that are invisible to the human eye.

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And there's about 4,000 projections

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on this particular square compared to the needle.

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And I've designed those projections

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to serve a key role, which is to 
work with the skin's immune system.

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So that's a very important function

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tied in with the Nanopatch.

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Now we make the Nanopatch

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with a technique

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called deep reactive ion etching.

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And this particular technique 
is one that's been borrowed

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from the semiconductor industry,

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and therefore is low cost

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and can be rolled out in large numbers.

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Now we dry-coat vaccines to 
the projections of the Nanopatch

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and apply it to the skin.

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Now, the simplest form of application

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is using our finger,

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but our finger has some limitations,

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so we've devised an applicator.

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And it's a very simple device --

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you could call it a sophisticated finger.

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It's a spring-operated device.

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What we do is when we apply 
the Nanopatch to the skin as so --

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(Click) --

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immediately a few things happen.

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So firstly, the projections on the Nanopatch

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breach through the tough outer layer

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and the vaccine is very quickly released --

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within less than a minute, in fact.

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Then we can take the Nanopatch off

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and discard it.

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And indeed we can make 
a reuse of the applicator itself.

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So that gives you an idea of the Nanopatch,

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and immediately you can see some key advantages.

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We've talked about it being needle-free --

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these are projections that you can't even see --

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and, of course, we get around

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the needle phobia issue as well.

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Now, if we take a step back and think about

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these other two really important advantages:

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One is improved immune 
responses through delivery,

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and the second is getting rid of the cold chain.

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So let's start with the first one, 
this immunogenicity idea.

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It takes a little while to get our heads around,

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but I'll try to explain it in simple terms.

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So I'll take a step back and explain to you

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how vaccines work in a simple way.

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So vaccines work by introducing into our body

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a thing called an antigen

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which is a safe form of a germ.

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Now that safe germ, that antigen,

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tricks our body into mounting an immune response,

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learning and remembering 
how to deal with intruders.

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When the real intruder comes along

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the body quickly mounts an immune response

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to deal with that vaccine

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and neutralizes the infection.

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So it does that well.

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Now, the way it's done today 
with the needle and syringe,

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most vaccines are delivered that way --

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with this old technology and the needle.

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But it could be argued that the needle 
is holding back our immune responses;

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it's missing our immune sweet spot in the skin.

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To describe this idea,

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we need to take a journey through the skin,

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starting with one of those projections

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and applying the Nanopatch to the skin.

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And we see this kind of data.

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Now, this is real data --

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that thing that we can see there is one projection

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from the Nanopatch that's been applied to the skin

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and those colors are different layers.

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Now, to give you an idea of scale,

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if the needle was shown here, it would be too big.

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It would be 10 times bigger

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than the size of that screen,
going 10 times deeper as well.

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It's off the grid entirely.

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You can see immediately that we 
have those projections in the skin.

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That red layer is a tough outer layer of dead skin,

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but the brown layer and the magenta layer

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are jammed full of immune cells.

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As one example, in the brown layer

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there's a certain type of cell 
called a Langerhans cell --

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every square millimeter of our body

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is jammed full of those Langerhans cells,

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those immune cells, and 
there's others shown as well

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that we haven't stained in this image.

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But you can immediately see that the Nanopatch

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achieves that penetration indeed.

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We target thousands upon thousands 
of these particular cells

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just residing within a hair's width

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of the surface of the skin.

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Now, as the guy that's invented
this thing and designed it to do that,

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I found that exciting. But so what?

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So what if you've targeted cells?

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In the world of vaccines, what does that mean?

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The world of vaccines is getting better.

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It's getting more systematic.

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However, you still don't really know

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if a vaccine is going to work

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until you roll your sleeves up

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and vaccinate and wait.

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It's a gambler's game even today.

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So, we had to do that gamble.

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We obtained an influenza vaccine,

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we applied it to our Nanopatches

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and we applied the Nanopatches to the skin,

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and we waited --

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and this is in the live animal.

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We waited a month,

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and this is what we found out.

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This is a data slide showing the immune responses

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that we've generated with a Nanopatch

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compared to the needle and syringe into muscle.

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So on the horizontal axis we have 
the dose shown in nanograms.

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On the vertical axis we have 
the immune response generated,

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and that dashed line indicates 
the protection threshold.

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If we're above that line it's considered protective;

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if we're below that line it's not.

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So the red line is mostly below that curve

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and indeed there's only one point that 
is achieved with the needle that's protective,

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and that's with a high dose of 6,000 nanograms.

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But notice immediately the distinctly different curve

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that we achieve with the blue line.

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That's what's achieved with the Nanopatch;

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the delivered dose of the Nanopatch is

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a completely different immunogenicity curve.

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That's a real fresh opportunity.

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Suddenly we have a brand new lever

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in the world of vaccines.

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We can push it one way,

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where we can take a vaccine 
that works but is too expensive

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and can get protection

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with a hundredth of the dose 
compared to the needle.

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That can take a vaccine that's suddenly 
10 dollars down to 10 cents,

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and that's particularly important 
within the developing world.

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But there's another angle to this as well --

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you can take vaccines that currently don't work

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and get them over that line

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and get them protective.

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And certainly in the world of vaccines

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that can be important.

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Let's consider the big three:

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HIV, malaria, tuberculosis.

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They're responsible for about 
7 million deaths per year,

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and there is no adequate vaccination 
method for any of those.

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So potentially, with this new lever 
that we have with the Nanopatch,

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we can help make that happen.

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We can push that lever to help get those 
candidate vaccines over the line.

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Now, of course, we've worked within my lab

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with many other vaccines that have attained

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similar responses and similar curves to this,

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what we've achieved with influenza.

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I'd like to now switch to talk about

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another key shortcoming of today's vaccines,

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and that is the need to maintain the cold chain.

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As the name suggests -- the cold chain --

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it's the requirements of keeping 
a vaccine right from production

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all the way through to when the vaccine is applied,

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to keep it refrigerated.

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Now, that presents some logistical challenges

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but we have ways to do it.

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This is a slightly extreme case in point

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but it helps illustrate the logistical challenges,

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in particular in resource-poor settings,

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of what's required to get vaccines

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refrigerated and maintain the cold chain.

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If the vaccine is too warm the vaccine breaks down,

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but interestingly it can be too cold

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and the vaccine can break down as well.

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Now, the stakes are very high.

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The WHO estimates that within Africa,

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up to half the vaccines used there

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are considered to not be working properly

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because at some point the 
cold chain has fallen over.

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So it's a big problem, and it's tied 
in with the needle and syringe

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because it's a liquid form vaccine, and 
when it's liquid it needs the refrigeration.

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A key attribute of our Nanopatch

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is that the vaccine is dry,

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and when it's dry it doesn't need refrigeration.

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Within my lab we've shown that we can keep

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the vaccine stored at 23 degrees Celsius

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for more than a year without 
any loss in activity at all.

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That's an important improvement.

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(Applause)

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We're delighted about it as well.

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And the thing about it is that
we have well and truly proven

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the Nanopatch within the laboratory setting.

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And as a scientist, I love that and I love science.

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However, as an engineer,

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as a biomedical engineer

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and also as a human being,

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I'm not going to be satisfied

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until we've rolled this thing 
out, taken it out of the lab

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and got it to people in large numbers

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and particularly the people that need it the most.

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So we've commenced this particular journey,

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and we've commenced this 
journey in an unusual way.

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We've started with Papua New Guinea.

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Now, Papua New Guinea is an example 
of a developing world country.

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It's about the same size as France,

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but it suffers from many of the key barriers

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existing within the world of today's vaccines.

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There's the logistics:

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Within this country there are only 800 
refrigerators to keep vaccines chilled.

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Many of them are old, like this one in Port Moresby,
many of them are breaking down

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and many are not in the Highlands 
where they are required.

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That's a challenge.

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But also, Papua New Guinea has the 
world's highest incidence of HPV,

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human papillomavirus, the 
cervical cancer [risk factor].

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Yet, that vaccine is not available in large numbers

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because it's too expensive.

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So for those two reasons, with 
the attributes of the Nanopatch,

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we've got into the field and 
worked with the Nanopatch,

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and taken it to Papua New Guinea

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and we'll be following that up shortly.

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Now, doing this kind of work is not easy.

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It's challenging,

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but there's nothing else in 
the world I'd rather be doing.

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And as we look ahead

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I'd like to share with you a thought:

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It's the thought of a future where

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the 17 million deaths per year

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that we currently have due to infectious disease

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is a historical footnote.

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And it's a historical footnote that has been achieved

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by improved, radically improved vaccines.

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Now standing here today in front of you

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at the birthplace of the needle and syringe,

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a device that's 160 years old,

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I'm presenting to you an alternative approach

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that could really help make that happen --

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and it's the Nanopatch with its attributes 
of being needle-free, pain-free,

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the ability for removing the cold chain
and improving the immunogenicity.

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Thank you.

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(Applause)