[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:00.44,0:00:02.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,All right. So, like all good stories,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:02.42,0:00:04.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this starts a long, long time ago
Dialogue: 0,0:00:04.35,0:00:06.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when there was basically nothing.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:06.50,0:00:08.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So here is a complete picture of the universe
Dialogue: 0,0:00:08.90,0:00:12.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about 14-odd billion years ago.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:12.35,0:00:15.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,All energy is concentrated into a single point of energy.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:15.44,0:00:17.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,For some reason it explodes,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:17.02,0:00:19.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you begin to get these things.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:19.14,0:00:22.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So you're now about 14 billion years into this.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:22.00,0:00:23.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And these things expand and expand and expand
Dialogue: 0,0:00:23.90,0:00:25.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,into these giant galaxies,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:25.60,0:00:26.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you get trillions of them.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:26.92,0:00:29.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And within these galaxies
Dialogue: 0,0:00:29.06,0:00:31.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you get these enormous dust clouds.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:31.18,0:00:32.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I want you to pay particular attention
Dialogue: 0,0:00:32.95,0:00:34.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to the three little prongs
Dialogue: 0,0:00:34.40,0:00:36.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the center of this picture.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:36.30,0:00:37.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you take a close-up of those,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:37.72,0:00:39.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they look like this.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:39.37,0:00:42.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And what you're looking at is columns of dust
Dialogue: 0,0:00:42.22,0:00:44.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where there's so much dust --
Dialogue: 0,0:00:44.26,0:00:48.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by the way, the scale of this is a trillion vertical miles --
Dialogue: 0,0:00:48.60,0:00:51.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and what's happening is there's so much dust,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:51.52,0:00:53.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it comes together and it fuses
Dialogue: 0,0:00:53.45,0:00:56.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and ignites a thermonuclear reaction.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:56.91,0:00:57.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so what you're watching
Dialogue: 0,0:00:57.75,0:00:59.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is the birth of stars.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:59.74,0:01:01.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These are stars being born out of here.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:01.39,0:01:03.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When enough stars come out,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:03.86,0:01:05.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they create a galaxy.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:05.66,0:01:09.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This one happens to be a particularly important galaxy,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:09.09,0:01:11.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because you are here.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:11.31,0:01:12.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:01:12.48,0:01:14.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as you take a close-up of this galaxy,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:14.13,0:01:16.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you find a relatively normal,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:16.19,0:01:18.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,not particularly interesting star.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:18.56,0:01:22.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the way, you're now about two-thirds of the way into this story.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:22.58,0:01:24.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So this star doesn't even appear
Dialogue: 0,0:01:24.76,0:01:27.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until about two-thirds of the way into this story.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:27.71,0:01:28.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then what happens
Dialogue: 0,0:01:28.79,0:01:30.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is there's enough dust left over
Dialogue: 0,0:01:30.19,0:01:32.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it doesn't ignite into a star,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:32.16,0:01:34.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it becomes a planet.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:34.16,0:01:38.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this is about a little over four billion years ago.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:38.98,0:01:40.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And soon thereafter
Dialogue: 0,0:01:40.42,0:01:42.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there's enough material left over
Dialogue: 0,0:01:42.33,0:01:46.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that you get a primordial soup,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:46.90,0:01:48.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that creates life.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:48.66,0:01:52.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And life starts to expand and expand and expand,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:52.54,0:01:54.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until it goes kaput.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:54.29,0:01:57.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:01:57.78,0:01:59.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now the really strange thing
Dialogue: 0,0:01:59.21,0:02:02.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is life goes kaput, not once, not twice,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:02.12,0:02:04.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but five times.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:04.33,0:02:06.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So almost all life on Earth
Dialogue: 0,0:02:06.43,0:02:08.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is wiped out about five times.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:08.90,0:02:10.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as you're thinking about that,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:10.45,0:02:12.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what happens is you get more and more complexity,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:12.88,0:02:14.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,more and more stuff
Dialogue: 0,0:02:14.12,0:02:18.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to build new things with.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:18.23,0:02:19.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we don't appear
Dialogue: 0,0:02:19.50,0:02:25.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until about 99.96 percent of the time into this story,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:25.15,0:02:29.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just to put ourselves and our ancestors in perspective.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:29.08,0:02:32.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So within that context, there's two theories of the case
Dialogue: 0,0:02:32.54,0:02:34.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as to why we're all here.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:34.23,0:02:35.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The first theory of the case
Dialogue: 0,0:02:35.82,0:02:39.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that's all she wrote.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:39.23,0:02:40.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Under that theory,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:40.59,0:02:42.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we are the be-all and end-all
Dialogue: 0,0:02:42.42,0:02:44.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of all creation.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:44.16,0:02:47.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the reason for trillions of galaxies,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:47.04,0:02:49.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,sextillions of planets,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:49.05,0:02:53.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is to create something that looks like that
Dialogue: 0,0:02:53.76,0:02:57.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and something that looks like that.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:57.40,0:02:58.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's the purpose of the universe;
Dialogue: 0,0:02:58.94,0:03:00.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then it flat-lines,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:00.22,0:03:01.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it doesn't get any better.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:01.53,0:03:06.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:03:06.01,0:03:08.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The only question you might want to ask yourself is,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:08.83,0:03:14.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could that be just mildly arrogant?
Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.07,0:03:15.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if it is --
Dialogue: 0,0:03:15.81,0:03:21.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and particularly given the fact that we came very close to extinction.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:21.19,0:03:24.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There were only about 2,000 of our species left.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:24.56,0:03:26.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A few more weeks without rain,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:26.64,0:03:29.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we would have never seen any of these.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:29.72,0:03:36.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:03:36.42,0:03:41.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)
Dialogue: 0,0:03:41.06,0:03:44.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So maybe you have to think about a second theory
Dialogue: 0,0:03:44.02,0:03:46.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if the first one isn't good enough.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:46.94,0:03:48.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Second theory is: Could we upgrade?
Dialogue: 0,0:03:48.72,0:03:51.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:03:51.62,0:03:54.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, why would one ask a question like that?
Dialogue: 0,0:03:54.86,0:03:57.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because there have been at least 29 upgrades so far
Dialogue: 0,0:03:57.32,0:03:59.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of humanoids.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:59.36,0:04:02.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So it turns out that we have upgraded.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:02.21,0:04:04.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We've upgraded time and again and again.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:04.12,0:04:07.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it turns out that we keep discovering upgrades.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:07.04,0:04:09.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We found this one last year.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:09.22,0:04:11.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We found another one last month.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:11.84,0:04:14.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as you're thinking about this,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:14.04,0:04:16.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you might also ask the question:
Dialogue: 0,0:04:16.14,0:04:19.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So why a single human species?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:19.24,0:04:21.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Wouldn't it be really odd
Dialogue: 0,0:04:21.07,0:04:24.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if you went to Africa and Asia and Antarctica
Dialogue: 0,0:04:24.86,0:04:27.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and found exactly the same bird --
Dialogue: 0,0:04:27.48,0:04:31.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,particularly given that we co-existed at the same time
Dialogue: 0,0:04:31.27,0:04:34.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with at least eight other versions of humanoid
Dialogue: 0,0:04:34.05,0:04:36.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at the same time on this planet?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:36.52,0:04:38.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the normal state of affairs
Dialogue: 0,0:04:38.40,0:04:40.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is not to have just a Homo sapiens;
Dialogue: 0,0:04:40.91,0:04:41.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the normal state of affairs
Dialogue: 0,0:04:41.93,0:04:45.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is to have various versions of humans walking around.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.76,0:04:48.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if that is the normal state of affairs,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:48.58,0:04:50.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then you might ask yourself,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:50.94,0:04:53.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all right, so if we want to create something else,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:53.01,0:04:55.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how big does a mutation have to be?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:55.88,0:04:58.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well Svante Paabo has the answer.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:58.51,0:05:01.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The difference between humans and Neanderthal
Dialogue: 0,0:05:01.31,0:05:04.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is 0.004 percent of gene code.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:04.61,0:05:06.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's how big the difference is
Dialogue: 0,0:05:06.31,0:05:08.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one species to another.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:08.53,0:05:12.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This explains most contemporary political debates.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:12.93,0:05:14.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:05:14.86,0:05:18.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But as you're thinking about this,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:18.07,0:05:19.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one of the interesting things
Dialogue: 0,0:05:19.43,0:05:22.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is how small these mutations are and where they take place.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:22.83,0:05:24.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Difference human/Neanderthal
Dialogue: 0,0:05:24.16,0:05:25.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is sperm and testis,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.89,0:05:27.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,smell and skin.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:27.26,0:05:28.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And those are the specific genes
Dialogue: 0,0:05:28.75,0:05:31.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that differ from one to the other.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:31.43,0:05:34.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So very small changes can have a big impact.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:34.53,0:05:36.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as you're thinking about this,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:36.16,0:05:38.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we're continuing to mutate.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:38.68,0:05:41.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So about 10,000 years ago by the Black Sea,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:41.58,0:05:43.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we had one mutation in one gene
Dialogue: 0,0:05:43.64,0:05:46.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which led to blue eyes.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:46.19,0:05:50.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this is continuing and continuing and continuing.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:50.08,0:05:51.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as it continues,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:51.51,0:05:53.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one of the things that's going to happen this year
Dialogue: 0,0:05:53.28,0:05:56.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is we're going to discover the first 10,000 human genomes,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:56.61,0:05:59.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it's gotten cheap enough to do the gene sequencing.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:59.88,0:06:01.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when we find these,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:01.47,0:06:03.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we may find differences.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:03.96,0:06:07.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And by the way, this is not a debate that we're ready for,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:07.04,0:06:10.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because we have really misused the science in this.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:10.41,0:06:14.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the 1920s, we thought there were major differences between people.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:14.10,0:06:17.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That was partly based on Francis Galton's work.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:17.89,0:06:20.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He was Darwin's cousin.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:20.03,0:06:22.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the U.S., the Carnegie Institute,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:22.34,0:06:24.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Stanford, American Neurological Association
Dialogue: 0,0:06:24.93,0:06:26.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,took this really far.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:26.79,0:06:30.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That got exported and was really misused.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:30.39,0:06:33.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In fact, it led to some absolutely horrendous
Dialogue: 0,0:06:33.08,0:06:35.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,treatment of human beings.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:35.09,0:06:37.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So since the 1940s, we've been saying there are no differences,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:37.68,0:06:39.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we're all identical.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:39.00,0:06:42.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We're going to know at year end if that is true.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:42.28,0:06:44.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as we think about that,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:44.01,0:06:45.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we're actually beginning to find things
Dialogue: 0,0:06:45.53,0:06:48.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like, do you have an ACE gene?
Dialogue: 0,0:06:48.100,0:06:50.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why would that matter?
Dialogue: 0,0:06:50.98,0:06:55.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because nobody's ever climbed an 8,000-meter peak without oxygen
Dialogue: 0,0:06:55.01,0:06:57.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that doesn't have an ACE gene.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:57.76,0:06:59.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if you want to get more specific,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:59.63,0:07:02.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how about a 577R genotype?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:02.65,0:07:07.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well it turns out that every male Olympic power athelete ever tested
Dialogue: 0,0:07:07.35,0:07:10.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,carries at least one of these variants.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:10.60,0:07:12.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If that is true,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:12.25,0:07:14.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it leads to some very complicated questions
Dialogue: 0,0:07:14.41,0:07:16.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for the London Olympics.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:16.21,0:07:17.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Three options:
Dialogue: 0,0:07:17.73,0:07:20.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Do you want the Olympics to be a showcase
Dialogue: 0,0:07:20.56,0:07:23.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for really hardworking mutants?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:23.26,0:07:24.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:07:24.100,0:07:27.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Option number two:
Dialogue: 0,0:07:27.73,0:07:31.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why don't we play it like golf or sailing?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:31.13,0:07:33.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because you have one and you don't have one,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:33.60,0:07:37.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I'll give you a tenth of a second head start.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:37.60,0:07:38.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Version number three:
Dialogue: 0,0:07:38.67,0:07:40.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because this is a naturally occurring gene
Dialogue: 0,0:07:40.74,0:07:43.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you've got it and you didn't pick the right parents,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:43.52,0:07:47.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you get the right to upgrade.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:47.47,0:07:49.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Three different options.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:49.22,0:07:50.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If these differences are the difference
Dialogue: 0,0:07:50.84,0:07:54.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,between an Olympic medal and a non-Olympic medal.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:54.22,0:07:57.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it turns out that as we discover these things,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:57.05,0:08:00.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we human beings really like to change
Dialogue: 0,0:08:00.39,0:08:02.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how we look, how we act,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:02.08,0:08:03.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what our bodies do.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:03.68,0:08:08.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we had about 10.2 million plastic surgeries in the United States,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:08.05,0:08:11.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,except that with the technologies that are coming online today,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:11.37,0:08:14.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,today's corrections, deletions,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:14.07,0:08:15.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,augmentations and enhancements
Dialogue: 0,0:08:15.99,0:08:18.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are going to seem like child's play.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:18.90,0:08:22.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You already saw the work by Tony Atala on TED,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:22.60,0:08:26.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but this ability to start filling
Dialogue: 0,0:08:26.17,0:08:29.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,things like inkjet cartridges with cells
Dialogue: 0,0:08:29.10,0:08:33.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are allowing us to print skin, organs
Dialogue: 0,0:08:33.78,0:08:36.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and a whole series of other body parts.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:36.52,0:08:38.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as these technologies go forward,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:38.41,0:08:42.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you keep seeing this, you keep seeing this, you keep seeing things --
Dialogue: 0,0:08:42.19,0:08:44.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,2000, human genome sequence --
Dialogue: 0,0:08:44.97,0:08:48.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it seems like nothing's happening,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:48.75,0:08:51.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until it does.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:51.86,0:08:55.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we may just be in some of these weeks.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:55.38,0:08:56.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as you're thinking about
Dialogue: 0,0:08:56.98,0:09:00.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these two guys sequencing a human genome in 2000
Dialogue: 0,0:09:00.44,0:09:03.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the Public Project sequencing the human genome in 2000,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:03.99,0:09:07.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then you don't hear a lot,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:07.15,0:09:11.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until you hear about an experiment last year in China,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:11.14,0:09:15.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where they take skin cells from this mouse,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:15.15,0:09:16.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,put four chemicals on it,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:16.89,0:09:20.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,turn those skin cells into stem cells,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:20.45,0:09:21.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,let the stem cells grow
Dialogue: 0,0:09:21.92,0:09:25.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and create a full copy of that mouse.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:25.00,0:09:28.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's a big deal.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:28.25,0:09:29.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because in essence
Dialogue: 0,0:09:29.27,0:09:31.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what it means is you can take a cell,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:31.42,0:09:33.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is a pluripotent stem cell,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:33.70,0:09:36.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is like a skier at the top of a mountain,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:36.38,0:09:40.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and those two skiers become two pluripotent stem cells,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:40.20,0:09:41.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,four, eight, 16,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:41.98,0:09:43.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then it gets so crowded
Dialogue: 0,0:09:43.65,0:09:45.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,after 16 divisions
Dialogue: 0,0:09:45.45,0:09:47.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that those cells have to differentiate.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:47.95,0:09:49.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So they go down one side of the mountain,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:49.39,0:09:50.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they go down another.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:50.62,0:09:52.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as they pick that,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:52.15,0:09:54.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these become bone,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:54.40,0:09:57.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then they pick another road and these become platelets,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:57.34,0:09:59.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and these become macrophages,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:59.45,0:10:00.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and these become T cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:00.72,0:10:02.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it's really hard, once you ski down,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:02.67,0:10:04.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to get back up.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:04.20,0:10:09.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Unless, of course, if you have a ski lift.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:09.61,0:10:12.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And what those four chemicals do
Dialogue: 0,0:10:12.06,0:10:14.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is they take any cell
Dialogue: 0,0:10:14.12,0:10:16.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and take it way back up the mountain
Dialogue: 0,0:10:16.06,0:10:18.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so it can become any body part.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:18.09,0:10:19.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as you think of that,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:19.82,0:10:21.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what it means is potentially
Dialogue: 0,0:10:21.80,0:10:23.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can rebuild a full copy
Dialogue: 0,0:10:23.97,0:10:25.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of any organism
Dialogue: 0,0:10:25.84,0:10:28.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,out of any one of its cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:28.43,0:10:30.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That turns out to be a big deal
Dialogue: 0,0:10:30.96,0:10:33.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because now you can take, not just mouse cells,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:33.52,0:10:35.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but you can human skin cells
Dialogue: 0,0:10:35.84,0:10:39.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and turn them into human stem cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:39.49,0:10:42.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then what they did in October
Dialogue: 0,0:10:42.69,0:10:46.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is they took skin cells, turned them into stem cells
Dialogue: 0,0:10:46.09,0:10:49.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and began to turn them into liver cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:49.76,0:10:50.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So in theory,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:50.81,0:10:55.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you could grow any organ from any one of your cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:55.99,0:10:57.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here's a second experiment:
Dialogue: 0,0:10:57.71,0:11:00.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you could photocopy your body,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:00.84,0:11:03.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,maybe you also want to take your mind.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:03.89,0:11:05.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And one of the things you saw at TED
Dialogue: 0,0:11:05.46,0:11:06.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about a year and a half ago
Dialogue: 0,0:11:06.71,0:11:08.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was this guy.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:08.14,0:11:10.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And he gave a wonderful technical talk.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:10.74,0:11:12.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He's a professor at MIT.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:12.34,0:11:14.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But in essence what he said
Dialogue: 0,0:11:14.26,0:11:15.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is you can take retroviruses,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:15.96,0:11:18.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which get inside brain cells of mice.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:18.76,0:11:21.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can tag them with proteins
Dialogue: 0,0:11:21.20,0:11:23.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that light up when you light them.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:23.29,0:11:27.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you can map the exact pathways
Dialogue: 0,0:11:27.01,0:11:30.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when a mouse sees, feels, touches,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:30.49,0:11:32.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,remembers, loves.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:32.67,0:11:35.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then you can take a fiber optic cable
Dialogue: 0,0:11:35.05,0:11:38.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and light up some of the same things.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:38.87,0:11:40.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And by the way, as you do this,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:40.70,0:11:42.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can image it in two colors,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:42.72,0:11:45.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which means you can download this information
Dialogue: 0,0:11:45.11,0:11:49.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as binary code directly into a computer.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:49.85,0:11:52.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So what's the bottom line on that?
Dialogue: 0,0:11:52.33,0:11:54.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well it's not completely inconceivable
Dialogue: 0,0:11:54.53,0:11:59.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that someday you'll be able to download your own memories,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:59.02,0:12:01.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,maybe into a new body.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:01.41,0:12:06.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And maybe you can upload other people's memories as well.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:06.49,0:12:09.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this might have just one or two
Dialogue: 0,0:12:09.01,0:12:12.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,small ethical, political, moral implications.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:12.53,0:12:14.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:12:14.06,0:12:17.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Just a thought.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:17.05,0:12:18.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here's the kind of questions
Dialogue: 0,0:12:18.58,0:12:20.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that are becoming interesting questions
Dialogue: 0,0:12:20.56,0:12:23.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for philosophers, for governing people,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:23.04,0:12:26.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for economists, for scientists.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:26.41,0:12:29.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because these technologies are moving really quickly.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:29.69,0:12:31.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as you think about it,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:31.19,0:12:34.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,let me close with an example of the brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:34.27,0:12:35.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The first place where you would expect
Dialogue: 0,0:12:35.96,0:12:39.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to see enormous evolutionary pressure today,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:39.01,0:12:41.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,both because of the inputs,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:41.27,0:12:42.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which are becoming massive,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:42.82,0:12:44.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and because of the plasticity of the organ,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:44.61,0:12:47.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is the brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:47.14,0:12:50.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Do we have any evidence that that is happening?
Dialogue: 0,0:12:50.46,0:12:55.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well let's take a look at something like autism incidence per thousand.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:55.19,0:12:57.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here's what it looks like in 2000.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:57.69,0:12:59.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here's what it looks like in 2002,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:59.77,0:13:04.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,2006, 2008.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:04.39,0:13:08.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here's the increase in less than a decade.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:08.47,0:13:12.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we still don't know why this is happening.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:12.89,0:13:15.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What we do know is, potentially,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:15.38,0:13:17.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the brain is reacting in
Dialogue: 0,0:13:17.41,0:13:19.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a hyperactive, hyper-plastic way,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:19.54,0:13:22.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and creating individuals that are like this.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:22.49,0:13:25.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this is only one of the conditions that's out there.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:25.25,0:13:28.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You've also got people with who are extraordinarily smart,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:28.79,0:13:31.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,people who can remember everything they've seen in their lives,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:31.19,0:13:32.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,people who've got synesthesia,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:32.57,0:13:33.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,people who've got schizophrenia.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:33.90,0:13:36.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You've got all kinds of stuff going on out there,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:36.44,0:13:37.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we still don't understand
Dialogue: 0,0:13:37.65,0:13:39.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how and why this is happening.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:39.89,0:13:42.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But one question you might want to ask is,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:42.57,0:13:45.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are we seeing a rapid evolution of the brain
Dialogue: 0,0:13:45.20,0:13:47.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and of how we process data?
Dialogue: 0,0:13:47.02,0:13:50.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because when you think of how much data's coming into our brains,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:50.08,0:13:53.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we're trying to take in as much data in a day
Dialogue: 0,0:13:53.57,0:13:56.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as people used to take in in a lifetime.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:56.12,0:13:58.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as you're thinking about this,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:58.75,0:14:01.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there's four theories as to why this might be going on,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:01.09,0:14:02.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,plus a whole series of others.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:02.42,0:14:04.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I don't have a good answer.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:04.07,0:14:07.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There really needs to be more research on this.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:07.69,0:14:09.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One option is the fast food fetish.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:09.92,0:14:12.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's beginning to be some evidence
Dialogue: 0,0:14:12.37,0:14:14.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that obesity and diet
Dialogue: 0,0:14:14.62,0:14:16.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,have something to do
Dialogue: 0,0:14:16.25,0:14:18.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with gene modifications,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:18.02,0:14:20.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which may or may not have an impact
Dialogue: 0,0:14:20.37,0:14:23.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on how the brain of an infant works.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:23.89,0:14:27.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A second option is the sexy geek option.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:27.84,0:14:32.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These conditions are highly rare.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:32.08,0:14:35.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:14:35.12,0:14:40.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)
Dialogue: 0,0:14:40.42,0:14:42.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But what's beginning to happen
Dialogue: 0,0:14:42.06,0:14:44.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is because these geeks are all getting together,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:44.59,0:14:47.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because they are highly qualified for computer programming
Dialogue: 0,0:14:47.49,0:14:49.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it is highly remunerated,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:49.80,0:14:52.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as well as other very detail-oriented tasks,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:52.96,0:14:55.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they are concentrating geographically
Dialogue: 0,0:14:55.40,0:14:58.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and finding like-minded mates.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:58.37,0:15:01.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So this is the assortative mating hypothesis
Dialogue: 0,0:15:01.94,0:15:04.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of these genes reinforcing one another
Dialogue: 0,0:15:04.64,0:15:06.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in these structures.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:06.76,0:15:09.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The third, is this too much information?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:09.71,0:15:11.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We're trying to process so much stuff
Dialogue: 0,0:15:11.20,0:15:13.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that some people get synesthetic
Dialogue: 0,0:15:13.56,0:15:16.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and just have huge pipes that remember everything.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:16.16,0:15:18.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Other people get hyper-sensitive to the amount of information.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:18.82,0:15:22.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Other people react with various psychological conditions
Dialogue: 0,0:15:22.81,0:15:24.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or reactions to this information.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:24.44,0:15:27.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or maybe it's chemicals.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:27.14,0:15:28.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But when you see an increase
Dialogue: 0,0:15:28.90,0:15:31.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of that order of magnitude in a condition,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:31.26,0:15:32.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,either you're not measuring it right
Dialogue: 0,0:15:32.82,0:15:35.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or there's something going on very quickly,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:35.34,0:15:39.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it may be evolution in real time.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:39.37,0:15:41.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here's the bottom line.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:41.87,0:15:44.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What I think we are doing
Dialogue: 0,0:15:44.06,0:15:45.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is we're transitioning as a species.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:45.77,0:15:51.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I didn't think this when Steve Gullans and I started writing together.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:51.26,0:15:53.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I think we're transitioning into Homo evolutis
Dialogue: 0,0:15:53.71,0:15:55.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that, for better or worse,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:55.10,0:15:59.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is not just a hominid that's conscious of his or her environment,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:59.29,0:16:02.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's a hominid that's beginning to directly and deliberately
Dialogue: 0,0:16:02.51,0:16:05.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,control the evolution of its own species,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:05.70,0:16:09.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of bacteria, of plants, of animals.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:09.54,0:16:12.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I think that's such an order of magnitude change
Dialogue: 0,0:16:12.37,0:16:15.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that your grandkids or your great-grandkids
Dialogue: 0,0:16:15.48,0:16:18.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,may be a species very different from you.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:18.52,0:16:20.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you very much.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:20.11,0:16:25.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)