Lessons from ancient social media: Tom Standage at TEDxOxbridge
-
0:02 - 0:05(Applause)
-
0:05 - 0:08I'm going to talk to you
about social media. -
0:08 - 0:11And you may say: "Not someone else
waffling on about social media !" -
0:11 - 0:14But I am going to give you a different way
of looking at social media, -
0:14 - 0:17one that I am pretty confident
you won't have heard of before. -
0:17 - 0:20I want to give you a historical
perspective on social media. -
0:20 - 0:23But to do that, we have to decide first
what social media actually is. -
0:23 - 0:25So this is my definition of it, here.
-
0:25 - 0:27It's media we get, crucially,
from other people. -
0:27 - 0:29And then it's exchanged
along social connections, -
0:29 - 0:32and it creates a distributed
discussion or community, -
0:32 - 0:34beyond the room and the people
you're physically with. -
0:34 - 0:38So it's very different from getting, say,
an impersonal voice out of a radio. -
0:38 - 0:39So this is my definition.
-
0:40 - 0:42If you define it this way,
then it becomes apparent. -
0:42 - 0:44This is how it works, here.
-
0:44 - 0:47We've got a group of people over here.
They all tweet each together. -
0:47 - 0:50One, in the middle, is connected
to this group over here. -
0:50 - 0:51And so it ripples across.
-
0:51 - 0:54We understand how this works today on
Internet based social networks, -
0:54 - 0:57on Twitter, Facebook, Instagram
and all the rest of it. -
0:57 - 1:00But actually, this kind of model,
-
1:00 - 1:02this horizontal
person-to-person transmission -
1:02 - 1:04doesn't require a digital network
to happen. -
1:04 - 1:08I spent the past few years
looking at examples that occur in history. -
1:08 - 1:13Because I think social media environments
have actually existed for centuries. -
1:13 - 1:16So, what are the conditions you need
for a social media environment ? -
1:16 - 1:18You need a bunch of things.
-
1:18 - 1:21You need literacy, because to send
messages to people far away, -
1:21 - 1:24you need to be able to write,
and they need to be able to read. -
1:24 - 1:29You also need the cost of sharing,
copying and delivering that information -
1:29 - 1:30to be relatively low.
-
1:30 - 1:35Today, it's almost free because
we have our smartphones and broadband. -
1:35 - 1:39But it turns out that these conditions
have arisen in history before. -
1:39 - 1:44And as far as I can tell, the first time
was in the late Roman Republic. -
1:44 - 1:46So this is Terentius Neo and his wife.
-
1:46 - 1:49He was a baker in Pompei.
-
1:49 - 1:52They are holding signs of their literacy.
-
1:52 - 1:55He is holding a scroll,
and she is holding a wax tablet. -
1:55 - 1:58This was a sort of notebook,
if you were a Roman. -
1:58 - 2:00They're basically saying :
"Look at us, we're literate." -
2:00 - 2:02They are very proud of their literacy.
-
2:02 - 2:05Romans, you know,
it was a relatively literate society. -
2:05 - 2:08Romans wrote to each other quite a lot.
-
2:08 - 2:11As far as I know, the first
social media ecosystem -
2:11 - 2:12is within the Roman elite.
-
2:12 - 2:15They all write letters to each other.
They pass on news. -
2:15 - 2:18The Roman elite were a bunch
of intermarried families. -
2:18 - 2:22So the political news
was the same as the social news. -
2:22 - 2:26So and so has fallen out with so and so,
so and so is divorcing so and so, etc. -
2:26 - 2:30So if we look at the letters of the statesman
and orator Cicero for example, -
2:30 - 2:34we see this very clearly.
Here is an excerpt from one of his letters : -
2:34 - 2:37"I sent you on March 24th
a copy of Balbus' letter to me... -
2:37 - 2:39… and of Caesar's letter to him."
-
2:39 - 2:42So we can see letters being passed on
second and third hand. -
2:42 - 2:44This seems to have been
quite widespread. -
2:44 - 2:47Letters were essentially
semi-public documents. -
2:47 - 2:50Here's another one.
Cicero in this case has written a letter -
2:50 - 2:53stating his views on something.
It's an open letter, -
2:53 - 2:54so he sends it to the recipient
-
2:54 - 2:57and also gives copies to his friends.
He's been asked for it : -
2:57 - 3:00"I hear you wrote
a good letter, so and so… " (Laughs) -
3:00 - 3:05He's keeping all of his outgoing mail.
We have Cicero's outbox and his inbox. -
3:05 - 3:07So we can see what he did.
-
3:07 - 3:09This is what he's doing here.
He's saying : -
3:09 - 3:12"I hear my letter
has been widely published." -
3:12 - 3:13Which is what he wanted.
-
3:13 - 3:15This is also how books were published
in the Roman world. -
3:15 - 3:17There were no printing presses.
-
3:17 - 3:20To write a book, you'd write it.
There would be lots of scrolls. -
3:20 - 3:24You would give it to the richest,
most influential person you knew, -
3:24 - 3:26who had a lot of traffic
going through their library. -
3:26 - 3:29Then scholars would
go to the library, read it and say: -
3:29 - 3:31"This book is good.
Can I have a copy ?" -
3:31 - 3:34Then this wealthy patron would have
his scribes make them a copy, -
3:34 - 3:36and take it to their library.
It would ripple. -
3:36 - 3:39Only when books were rippling,
and people were talking about them -
3:39 - 3:40and asking for copies,
-
3:40 - 3:43would the bookmakers
start to produce them. -
3:43 - 3:46Roman authors wanted their book
to be as widely pirated as possible. -
3:46 - 3:48This was a peer-to-peer system.
-
3:48 - 3:52The other thing distributed in a peer-to-peer
manner, was the Roman newspaper. -
3:52 - 3:56It was called the Acta Diurna,
founded in 59 B.C. by Julius Caesar. -
3:56 - 3:59It was published every day. Do you know
how many copies were produced ? -
3:59 - 4:03Spectator : One.
Tom Standage : One. Exactly. One copy. (Laughs) -
4:03 - 4:05It was in the forum.
If you wanted to read it, -
4:05 - 4:07you had to go and read it yourself.
-
4:07 - 4:09If you wanted to read it
somewhere other, -
4:09 - 4:12it was up to the audience
to do the distribution. -
4:12 - 4:15So you would send your scribe down.
You would say : "Go down for me, -
4:15 - 4:18note down the headlines
I might be interested in. -
4:18 - 4:20Because I want to read the news
over breakfast." -
4:20 - 4:23Your scribe would do that.
He would bring you back the news. -
4:23 - 4:26This is the device you would read
it on. Looks quite familiar. -
4:26 - 4:30This is a Roman iPad.
(Laughs) -
4:30 - 4:35It's actually a wax tablet,
but the aspect ratio is exactly the same. -
4:35 - 4:38The size is identical.
(Laughs) -
4:38 - 4:40If we go back to that previous one,
the woman, -
4:40 - 4:45she's got a Roman Galaxy S4.
(Laughs) -
4:45 - 4:49The buttons were in the middle
of the long end, which is quite interesting. -
4:49 - 4:52So this is the way the news got around.
If you were going out of town, -
4:52 - 4:55and you wanted to be kept
informed of the news, -
4:55 - 4:57your friends would copy
bits of the Acta Diurna, -
4:57 - 5:00and other bits of the letters
they had received. -
5:00 - 5:03You got the news from your friends.
It was a social media system. -
5:03 - 5:06Let's move forward a bit.
Here is another example. -
5:06 - 5:09This is from 1500 years later,
this is Martin Luther. -
5:09 - 5:12Martin Luther picks a fight
with the Catholic Church -
5:12 - 5:14over the doctrine of indulgences,
-
5:14 - 5:17or the sale of 'get out of purgatory' free cards.
-
5:18 - 5:22He thinks this is a silly idea,
so he writes 95 theses, -
5:22 - 5:27essentially questions he wants to debate,
questions he wants the Pope to answer. -
5:27 - 5:30These days it would be a listicle
on BuzzFeed. It would be called : -
5:30 - 5:32"95 reasons why the Pope
is wrong on indulgences", -
5:32 - 5:34or something like that.
(Laughs) -
5:34 - 5:36If it was on BuzzFeed,
it would be called : -
5:36 - 5:38"95 crazy reasons
why the Pope is wrong…" -
5:38 - 5:42What he actually does, though,
is he writes this out, longhand, -
5:42 - 5:44and pins it to the Church door
in Wittenberg, to say : -
5:44 - 5:47"I want to have a debate on this."
That was how you did that. -
5:47 - 5:49People start copying it.
It starts to spread. -
5:49 - 5:51Then printers get hold of it.
-
5:51 - 5:55It's in Latin. They print copies of it,
it spreads to printers in nearby towns. -
5:55 - 5:59It's causing such a stir, they reprint it.
It spreads to other towns. It spreads. -
5:59 - 6:02Luther doesn't do anything himself.
-
6:02 - 6:04Some of the printers
translate it into German, -
6:04 - 6:06so it reaches people
who don't read Latin. -
6:06 - 6:09It spreads incredibly fast.
This is a contemporary of Luther: -
6:09 - 6:12"It takes 2 weeks to spread
throughout Germany, -
6:12 - 6:14and a month to spread
throughout the whole of Europe." -
6:14 - 6:16This comes as a total surprise
to Luther. -
6:16 - 6:20He says he can't believe "they are printed
and circulated" - his theses - -
6:20 - 6:22"far beyond my expectation."
-
6:22 - 6:24Now a light bulb comes on
and he goes : "Hang on... -
6:24 - 6:27… this is the way to spread my views
about indulgences." -
6:27 - 6:30So he writes his next pamphlet in German,
-
6:30 - 6:33gives it to the printer
in Wittenberg, where he lives. -
6:33 - 6:36He prints a thousand copies.
They get carried to nearby towns -
6:36 - 6:37where more printers
print more copies, -
6:37 - 6:41and it spreads and spreads.
This is how he gets his message out. -
6:41 - 6:45How do we know that this was effective ?
How can we measure this ? -
6:45 - 6:48Today, we measure the effectiveness
of a social media campaign -
6:48 - 6:52by counting retweets, likes, reblogs etc.
-
6:52 - 6:55It turns out you can do this
for Martin Luther as well, -
6:55 - 6:59because you can count the number of times
that his pamphlets are reprinted -
6:59 - 7:01- the number of new editions.
-
7:01 - 7:04If you do that and
you look at Martin Luther's traffic stats, -
7:04 - 7:06it looks like this. (Laughs)
-
7:06 - 7:10If any of you have a WordPress blog,
you will be used to looking at things like this. -
7:10 - 7:12Luther would be pretty pleased
to see it. -
7:12 - 7:14You see, that massive spike is 1523.
-
7:14 - 7:20The red ones here are the German pamphlets,
the blue ones are the Latin pamphlets. -
7:20 - 7:22The lighter colour is the reprints,
-
7:22 - 7:24the darker colour is the original
new pamphlets by Luther. -
7:24 - 7:30You can see massive spikes in reprinting.
Each one is another thousand copies. -
7:30 - 7:35This causes his message to spread
throughout the German lands and beyond, -
7:35 - 7:39and the result is the split in the Church
between Catholics and Protestants. -
7:39 - 7:41The Reformation comes out of this.
-
7:41 - 7:44Here's another social media platform.
This one is connected to Oxford. -
7:44 - 7:48This is the first coffee house
in England, here in Oxford. -
7:48 - 7:51Coffee houses were
a fantastic media sharing platform. -
7:51 - 7:53They were where pamphlets would come in,
-
7:53 - 7:56and news books, which were
an ancestor of the newspaper. -
7:56 - 7:59People would gather,
read them and discuss them, -
7:59 - 8:01and they'd send them by post
to other coffee houses. -
8:01 - 8:04They would take place
in a massive distributed discussion -
8:04 - 8:06that was going on by people
inside coffee houses. -
8:06 - 8:10What was notable about coffee houses
wasn't just that they had coffee, -
8:10 - 8:13it was also that people
of different social classes -
8:13 - 8:16were expected,
were invited to mix. -
8:16 - 8:18So you get the gentleman, the mechanic,
the lord and the scoundrel, -
8:18 - 8:20all talking to each other.
-
8:20 - 8:21Ideas were able to cross over
-
8:21 - 8:24between different groups
and social circles, -
8:24 - 8:26in a way that they couldn't before.
-
8:26 - 8:30This went on to have
some pretty far-reaching impacts. -
8:30 - 8:32But the main thing this does,
-
8:32 - 8:35is allowing people
to be exposed to new ideas, -
8:35 - 8:39and to take part in a broader discussion
of things that are going on. -
8:39 - 8:41People call coffee houses
penny universities. -
8:41 - 8:43You paid a penny
for your coffee, -
8:43 - 8:46and you could take part
in an incredibly alluring and addictive -
8:46 - 8:48media sharing environment.
-
8:48 - 8:52There are many more examples.
I have been collecting these for a while. -
8:52 - 8:56This is a commonplace book,
where you wrote interesting stuff, -
8:56 - 8:59like on Tumblr or Pinterest :
"Oh, that's interesting !" (Laughs) -
8:59 - 9:03It's very rarely stuff by you. This is why
I say it's like Tumblr or Pinterest. -
9:03 - 9:0580% of stuff on Tumblr and Pinterest
is re-shared. -
9:05 - 9:10It's the same here
with these commonplace books. -
9:10 - 9:12It's mostly other people's poems,
lists and aphorisms. -
9:12 - 9:15You share the book
and friends copy the bit they like. -
9:15 - 9:19What you choose to share with them,
and what you choose to put in your book -
9:19 - 9:21is a way for you
to define and express yourself. -
9:21 - 9:23Other examples :
poems before the French Revolution, -
9:23 - 9:27pamphlets in the English Civil War,
pamphlets before the American Revolution... -
9:27 - 9:29I have a whole lot of examples.
-
9:31 - 9:34The question then is : if social media
is commonplace around history, -
9:34 - 9:36what happened to it ?
Why haven't we noticed before ? -
9:36 - 9:39The answer is that we went
from this kind of environment, -
9:39 - 9:42where people are sharing stuff
on social networks, -
9:42 - 9:45and in the 19th century,
we switched to this kind of model. -
9:45 - 9:49This is where a small number of people
are delivering a message very efficiently -
9:49 - 9:52to an enormous audience,
but in an impersonal way. -
9:52 - 9:55This starts off with the steam press
and with mass circulation newspapers. -
9:55 - 9:59It then goes on to radio and TV
and that sort of thing. -
9:59 - 10:03They allow a very small selective group
of people, let's call them journalists… -
10:03 - 10:06… to reach a large number of people.
They are not always journalists, -
10:06 - 10:08because this is the most
notorious example -
10:08 - 10:11of the effectiveness with which you can
-
10:11 - 10:13propagate a message: propaganda.
-
10:13 - 10:15This is the Nazi Volksempfänger.
-
10:15 - 10:17We know the Volkswagen,
the people's car. -
10:17 - 10:21This is the people's radio,
but it was the people's radio because -
10:21 - 10:24it was built so that it could only
pick up domestic German broadcast. -
10:24 - 10:27You couldn't pickup foreign news on it.
So you had to listen to Hitler -
10:27 - 10:30droning on all the time,
and making his speeches. -
10:30 - 10:32This sort of centralised control
-
10:32 - 10:34is the absolute opposite of social media,
-
10:34 - 10:37and this is what happened in the 19th
and then mostly the 20th century. -
10:37 - 10:41I think this gives us
a new way to look at media, -
10:41 - 10:44because now, "Social media
is back, thanks to the Internet." -
10:44 - 10:47The Internet makes it cheap
to reach a large audience of people. -
10:47 - 10:51You don't need an expensive printing press
or radio transmitter anymore. -
10:51 - 10:54You can just go out there
onto your social platform of choice, -
10:54 - 10:58and potentially, what you write or publish
can reach an audience of millions. -
10:58 - 11:02I think this means instead of looking
at the history of media like this, -
11:02 - 11:04as a division
between old and new media, -
11:04 - 11:08- "old" was analog,
print, broadcast, -
11:08 - 11:11"new" is digital, the Internet,
and more social - -
11:11 - 11:13I think that's not the whole story.
-
11:13 - 11:15We need to think of it like this.
(Laughs) -
11:15 - 11:17There was this thing
called "really old" media, -
11:17 - 11:21and it was quite similar to "new" media.
-
11:21 - 11:24The cutoff is 1833,
which is when the first -
11:24 - 11:25penny paper is launched in New York.
-
11:25 - 11:29That's for me the beginning of "old" media,
of this centralisation. -
11:29 - 11:36I think that this pre-"old" media period
can tell us a lot today. -
11:36 - 11:39This means ancient social media systems
-
11:39 - 11:41have a whole bunch of lessons for us.
-
11:41 - 11:44Let me just do three of them very quickly.
Here is the first one : -
11:44 - 11:47"Is social media merely a
dangerous distraction, a waste of time ?" -
11:47 - 11:51I'm sure you've been told this,
it's a very common complaint, that -
11:51 - 11:54"We shouldn't be calling it
social networking... -
11:54 - 11:56… we should be calling it
social notworking." -
11:56 - 11:57(Laughs)
-
11:57 - 12:00This is a very old complaint.
-
12:00 - 12:04Here is somebody making exactly
this complaint in Oxford in the 1670s. -
12:04 - 12:08Anthony Wood says : "Why are the
students not doing any work anymore ? ... -
12:08 - 12:10… because they're all
in the coffee house, -
12:10 - 12:13sharing media with their friends." (Laughs)
-
12:13 - 12:16It turns out this also happened
in Cambridge. (Laughs) -
12:16 - 12:19Equal opportunities, right ?
Oxbridge! -
12:19 - 12:22Exactly the same complaints
in Cambridge : -
12:22 - 12:25students don't work anymore
because they're in the coffee house. -
12:25 - 12:29Here is a pamphlet
that is complaining the same thing : -
12:29 - 12:31coffee houses are enemies
to diligence and industry, -
12:31 - 12:34and the ruin of serious young men
-
12:34 - 12:37because people are just wasting time.
-
12:37 - 12:41Is this true, though ? Well, look at what
happened at the end of the 17th century. -
12:41 - 12:46You'll see that instead of being enemies
of diligence and industry, -
12:46 - 12:48coffee houses were crucibles of innovation.
-
12:48 - 12:50They allowed people and ideas
to mingle in new ways. -
12:50 - 12:52Incredible things came out of that.
-
12:52 - 12:54The scientific revolution, for example.
-
12:54 - 12:58You get scientists meeting in coffee houses.
-
12:58 - 13:00The Royal Society grows out
of people meeting in coffee houses, -
13:00 - 13:02here in Oxford and in London.
-
13:02 - 13:05They sometimes even do experiments
and lectures in coffee houses. -
13:05 - 13:10My favourite example is that
Isaac Newton writes Principia Mathematica, -
13:10 - 13:13the foundation of modern science,
in order to settle a coffee house argument -
13:13 - 13:15between Wren, Hooke and Halley.
(Laughs) -
13:15 - 13:18Blame the coffee house.
-
13:18 - 13:20Similarly, coffee houses lead to
commercial innovation. -
13:20 - 13:23Lloyd's of London starts off
as a coffee house called Lloyd's. -
13:23 - 13:26Another coffee house round the corner
called Jonathan's -
13:26 - 13:28turns into the London Stock Exchange.
(Laughs) -
13:28 - 13:31You get amazing innovation
from this collision of ideas. -
13:31 - 13:33The same is possible
in social media today. -
13:33 - 13:37Some companies are realising this,
and are using social media internally -
13:37 - 13:39to foster collaboration and innovation.
-
13:39 - 13:42"What is the role of social media
in revolutions?" -
13:42 - 13:44We heard a lot about this,
after the Arab Spring. -
13:44 - 13:47To what extent did Facebook
and Twitter play a role, -
13:47 - 13:51in what happened in Tunisia and Egypt?
Can we call them Twitter revolutions ? -
13:51 - 13:54It turns out we can find out
by asking history. -
13:54 - 13:55We can ask Martin Luther :
-
13:55 - 13:58"From the rapid spread of the theses,
-
13:58 - 14:01I gathered what most of the nation
thought of indulgences." -
14:01 - 14:04That is, the popularity of his pamphlets
was a signalling mechanism, -
14:04 - 14:07to him and to the readers
of the pamphlets, -
14:07 - 14:09that they all felt the same way
about indulgences. -
14:09 - 14:13Modern media scholars
call this synchronisation of opinion. -
14:13 - 14:18It means that people who aren't quite sure
they share the same views as other people, -
14:18 - 14:19can find out that they do.
-
14:19 - 14:23Today, you can do it because
when 80,000 people like a Facebook page, -
14:23 - 14:26that says : "Let's go and have
a demonstration on Saturday." -
14:26 - 14:30In those days, you could do it because
when you went to the pamphlet seller, -
14:30 - 14:32he'd say : "Sorry,
sold out of the new Luther." -
14:32 - 14:35Then you'd know other people
were trying to buy it -
14:35 - 14:37and were interested
in what he had to say. -
14:37 - 14:40I think that tells us that social media
doesn't cause revolution, -
14:40 - 14:43as an underlying grievance, obviously,
-
14:43 - 14:47but they help them
and allow them to spread more quickly. -
14:47 - 14:51One way this has been put by Jared Cohen
at Google, is that they're an accelerator. -
14:51 - 14:53They don't start a fire,
but they help it to spread. -
14:53 - 14:56I think that's a good way
to think about it. -
14:56 - 14:58Finally, "Is social media a fad ?"
-
14:58 - 15:02I hope I've convinced you that
it has been around for a very long time. -
15:02 - 15:07It's not at all a fad. If anything was
a fad, it was the "old" mass-media period. -
15:07 - 15:10That was a historical anomaly,
if you look at it in these terms. -
15:10 - 15:14Now we have gone back
to a more social model -
15:14 - 15:17like we had before
at the middle of the 19th century. -
15:17 - 15:19This time it's supercharged
by the Internet. -
15:19 - 15:21"Social media is not a fad.
-
15:21 - 15:23It was the mass-media era
that was a anomaly." -
15:23 - 15:25Social media is here to stay.
-
15:25 - 15:30I hope I have convinced you that
modern social-media users, -
15:30 - 15:32- all of you,
I hope you're all on Twitter - -
15:32 - 15:34are heirs to a centuries-long tradition.
-
15:34 - 15:38I hope this will change
the way you look at social media, -
15:38 - 15:43that you'll realise all these modern activities
have these historical predecessors. -
15:43 - 15:46I hope I have convinced you that social media
-
15:46 - 15:48doesn't just connect us to each other today,
-
15:48 - 15:51it also links us to the past.
Thank you. -
15:51 - 15:56(Applause)
- Title:
- Lessons from ancient social media: Tom Standage at TEDxOxbridge
- Description:
-
Social media isn't just a modern trend, but an ancient one too, as Tom Standage explains. At TEDxOxbridge, he takes us on a history tour of how news and ideas were spread and discussed -- from the letters of Cicero to the coffee houses of Elizabethan England -- and shows that social media is not that new after all.
- Video Language:
- English
- Team:
- closed TED
- Project:
- TEDxTalks
- Duration:
- 16:00
Els De Keyser edited English subtitles for Lessons from ancient social media: Tom Standage at TEDxOxbridge | ||
Els De Keyser approved English subtitles for Lessons from ancient social media: Tom Standage at TEDxOxbridge | ||
Els De Keyser accepted English subtitles for Lessons from ancient social media: Tom Standage at TEDxOxbridge | ||
Els De Keyser edited English subtitles for Lessons from ancient social media: Tom Standage at TEDxOxbridge | ||
Els De Keyser edited English subtitles for Lessons from ancient social media: Tom Standage at TEDxOxbridge | ||
Els De Keyser edited English subtitles for Lessons from ancient social media: Tom Standage at TEDxOxbridge | ||
Els De Keyser edited English subtitles for Lessons from ancient social media: Tom Standage at TEDxOxbridge | ||
Els De Keyser edited English subtitles for Lessons from ancient social media: Tom Standage at TEDxOxbridge |
Peipei Xiang
It was a little out of sync, but I think it's because this guys talks really fast. :)
Krystian Aparta
Good work, but I'm sending these subtitles back, because they still needs some edits to be in keeping with our subtitling standards. I made some corrections in the first two minutes to show you what I mean. Subtitles cannot be longer than 84 characters total; if a subtitle is longer than 42 characters, it must be broken into two lines of up to 42 characters in length. The reading speed of subtitles cannot exceed 21 characters per second. You can fix that by compressing (reducing non-essential text, like "actually," "well" etc.) or by editing the timing (e.g. extending the duration by 100-200 miliseconds onto the next subtitle (which you push forward by that amount of time). To learn more, please watch this tutorial http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yvNQoD32Qqo&list=PLuvL0OYxuPwxQbdq4W7TCQ7TBnW39cDRC I also edited the description to be in keeping with our standards (see http://translations.ted.org/wiki/How_to_Tackle_a_Transcript)