How we'll resurrect the gastric brooding frog, the Tasmanian tiger
-
0:01 - 0:04I do want to test this question
we're all interested in: -
0:04 - 0:07Does extinction have to be forever?
-
0:07 - 0:10I'm focused on two projects
I want to tell you about. -
0:10 - 0:11One is the Thylacine Project.
-
0:11 - 0:13The other one is the Lazarus Project,
-
0:13 - 0:16and that's focused
on the gastric-brooding frog. -
0:16 - 0:18And it would be a fair question to ask,
-
0:18 - 0:20why have we focused on these two animals?
-
0:20 - 0:25Well, point number one, each of them
represents a unique family of its own. -
0:26 - 0:27We've lost a whole family.
-
0:27 - 0:30That's a big chunk
of the global genome gone. -
0:30 - 0:31I'd like it back.
-
0:31 - 0:36The second reason
is that we killed these things. -
0:36 - 0:41In the case of the thylacine, regrettably,
we shot every one that we saw. -
0:41 - 0:42We slaughtered them.
-
0:43 - 0:48In the case of the gastric-brooding frog,
we may have "fungicided" it to death. -
0:48 - 0:50There's a dreadful fungus
that's moving through the world -
0:50 - 0:52that's called the chytrid fungus,
-
0:52 - 0:54and it's nailing frogs all over the world.
-
0:54 - 0:56We think that's probably
what got this frog, -
0:56 - 0:59and humans are spreading this fungus.
-
0:59 - 1:02And this introduces
a very important ethical point, -
1:02 - 1:04and I think you will have heard
this many times -
1:04 - 1:06when this topic comes up.
-
1:06 - 1:07What I think is important
-
1:07 - 1:11is that, if it's clear
that we exterminated these species, -
1:11 - 1:14then I think we not only
have a moral obligation -
1:14 - 1:16to see what we can do about it,
-
1:16 - 1:20but I think we've got a moral imperative
to try to do something, if we can. -
1:21 - 1:24OK. Let me talk to you
about the Lazarus Project. -
1:24 - 1:26It's a frog. And you think, frog.
-
1:26 - 1:30Yeah, but this was not just any frog.
-
1:30 - 1:33Unlike a normal frog,
which lays its eggs in the water -
1:33 - 1:35and goes away
and wishes its froglets well, -
1:35 - 1:39this frog swallowed its fertilized eggs,
-
1:39 - 1:43swallowed them into the stomach,
where it should be having food, -
1:43 - 1:47didn't digest the eggs,
and turned its stomach into a uterus. -
1:47 - 1:51In the stomach, the eggs
went on to develop into tadpoles, -
1:51 - 1:54and in the stomach, the tadpoles
went on to develop into frogs, -
1:54 - 1:56and they grew in the stomach
-
1:56 - 2:00until eventually the poor old frog
was at risk of bursting apart. -
2:00 - 2:04It has a little cough and a hiccup,
and out comes sprays of little frogs. -
2:04 - 2:07Now, when biologists saw this,
they were agog. -
2:07 - 2:09They thought, this is incredible.
-
2:09 - 2:13No animal, let alone a frog,
has been known to do this, -
2:13 - 2:15to change one organ
in the body into another. -
2:15 - 2:19And you can imagine the medical world
went nuts over this as well. -
2:19 - 2:20If we could understand
-
2:20 - 2:23how that frog is managing
the way its tummy works, -
2:23 - 2:26is there information here
that we need to understand -
2:26 - 2:29or could usefully use to help ourselves?
-
2:29 - 2:33Now, I'm not suggesting we want
to raise our babies in our stomach, -
2:33 - 2:34but I am suggesting it's possible
-
2:34 - 2:37we might want to manage
gastric secretion in the gut. -
2:37 - 2:40And just as everybody
got excited about it, bang! -
2:40 - 2:41It was extinct.
-
2:42 - 2:44I called up my friend,
-
2:44 - 2:46Professor Mike Tyler
in the University of Adelaide. -
2:46 - 2:50He was the last person who had this frog,
a colony of these things, in his lab. -
2:50 - 2:53And I said, "Mike, by any chance --"
This was 30 or 40 years ago. -
2:53 - 2:57"By any chance had you kept
any frozen tissue of this frog?" -
2:57 - 2:58And he thought about it,
-
2:58 - 3:02and he went to his deep freezer,
minus 20 degrees centigrade, -
3:02 - 3:05and he poured through
everything in the freezer, -
3:05 - 3:09and there in the bottom was a jar
and it contained tissues of these frogs. -
3:09 - 3:10This was very exciting,
-
3:10 - 3:14but there was no reason
why we should expect that this would work, -
3:14 - 3:17because this tissue
had not had any antifreeze put in it, -
3:18 - 3:21cryoprotectants, to look after it
when it was frozen. -
3:21 - 3:24And normally, when water freezes,
as you know, it expands, -
3:24 - 3:26and the same thing happens in a cell.
-
3:26 - 3:30If you freeze tissues, the water expands,
damages or bursts the cell walls. -
3:30 - 3:33Well, we looked at the tissue
under the microscope. -
3:33 - 3:35It actually didn't look bad.
The cell walls looked intact. -
3:35 - 3:37So we thought, let's give it a go.
-
3:37 - 3:42What we did is something called
somatic cell nuclear transplantation. -
3:42 - 3:45We took the eggs
of a related species, a living frog, -
3:45 - 3:48and we inactivated the nucleus of the egg.
-
3:48 - 3:51We used ultraviolet radiation to do that.
-
3:51 - 3:55And then we took the dead nucleus
from the dead tissue of the extinct frog -
3:55 - 3:59and we inserted those nuclei
into that egg. -
3:59 - 4:02Now, by rights, this is
kind of like a cloning project, -
4:02 - 4:03like what produced Dolly,
-
4:03 - 4:05but it's actually very different,
-
4:05 - 4:08because Dolly was live sheep
into live sheep cells. -
4:08 - 4:10That was a miracle, but it was workable.
-
4:10 - 4:14What we're trying to do is take
a dead nucleus from an extinct species -
4:14 - 4:17and put it into a completely different
species and expect that to work. -
4:17 - 4:19Well, we had no real reason
to expect it would, -
4:19 - 4:22and we tried hundreds
and hundreds of these. -
4:23 - 4:26And just last February,
the last time we did these trials, -
4:26 - 4:28I saw a miracle starting to happen.
-
4:29 - 4:32What we found was
most of these eggs didn't work, -
4:32 - 4:35but then suddenly,
one of them began to divide. -
4:35 - 4:37That was so exciting.
-
4:37 - 4:40And then the egg divided again.
And then again. -
4:40 - 4:43And pretty soon,
we had early-stage embryos -
4:43 - 4:45with hundreds of cells forming those.
-
4:46 - 4:48We even DNA-tested some of these cells,
-
4:48 - 4:52and the DNA of the extinct frog
is in those cells. -
4:52 - 4:56So we're very excited.
This is not a tadpole. It's not a frog. -
4:56 - 4:58But it's a long way along the journey
-
4:58 - 5:01to producing, or bringing back,
an extinct species. -
5:01 - 5:02And this is news.
-
5:03 - 5:05We haven't announced this publicly before.
-
5:05 - 5:06We're excited.
-
5:06 - 5:08We've got to get past this point.
-
5:08 - 5:10We now want this ball of cells
to start to gastrulate, -
5:10 - 5:13to turn in so that it will produce
the other tissues. -
5:13 - 5:17It'll go on and produce
a tadpole and then a frog. -
5:17 - 5:18Watch this space.
-
5:18 - 5:20I think we're going to have
this frog hopping -
5:20 - 5:22glad to be back in the world again.
-
5:23 - 5:25(Applause)
-
5:25 - 5:26Thank you.
-
5:26 - 5:28(Applause)
-
5:28 - 5:31We haven't done it yet,
but keep the applause ready. -
5:31 - 5:35The second project I want to talk
to you about is the Thylacine Project. -
5:35 - 5:39The thylacine looks a bit,
to most people, like a dog, -
5:39 - 5:41or maybe like a tiger,
because it has stripes. -
5:41 - 5:44But it's not related to any of those.
It's a marsupial. -
5:44 - 5:48It raised its young in a pouch,
like a koala or a kangaroo would do, -
5:48 - 5:53and it has a long history,
a long, fascinating history, -
5:53 - 5:56that goes back 25 million years.
-
5:56 - 5:58But it's also a tragic history.
-
5:58 - 6:03The first one that we see occurs
in the ancient rain forests of Australia -
6:03 - 6:05about 25 million years ago,
-
6:05 - 6:07and the National Geographic Society
-
6:08 - 6:10is helping us to explore
these fossil deposits. -
6:10 - 6:11This is Riversleigh.
-
6:11 - 6:14In those fossil rocks
are some amazing animals. -
6:14 - 6:16We found marsupial lions.
-
6:16 - 6:19We found carnivorous kangaroos.
-
6:19 - 6:21It's not what you usually
think about as a kangaroo, -
6:21 - 6:23but these are meat-eating kangaroos.
-
6:23 - 6:25We found the biggest bird in the world,
-
6:25 - 6:27bigger than that thing
that was in Madagascar, -
6:27 - 6:29and it too was a flesh eater.
-
6:29 - 6:31It was a giant, weird duck.
-
6:31 - 6:34And crocodiles were not behaving
at that time either. -
6:34 - 6:36You think of crocodiles
as doing their ugly thing, -
6:36 - 6:38sitting in a pool of water.
-
6:38 - 6:40These crocodiles
were actually out on the land -
6:40 - 6:46and they were even climbing trees
and jumping on prey on the ground. -
6:46 - 6:50We had, in Australia, drop crocs.
They really do exist. -
6:50 - 6:51(Laughter)
-
6:51 - 6:54But what they were dropping on
was not only other weird animals -
6:54 - 6:55but also thylacines.
-
6:55 - 6:59There were five different kinds
of thylacines in those ancient forests, -
6:59 - 7:04and they ranged from great big ones
to middle-sized ones -
7:04 - 7:07to one that was
about the size of a chihuahua. -
7:07 - 7:09Paris Hilton would have been able
-
7:09 - 7:12to carry one of these things around
in a little handbag, -
7:12 - 7:14until a drop croc landed on her.
-
7:14 - 7:15At any rate, it was a fascinating place,
-
7:16 - 7:18but unfortunately,
Australia didn't stay this way. -
7:18 - 7:22Climate change has affected the world
for a long period of time, -
7:22 - 7:26and gradually, the forests disappeared,
the country began to dry out, -
7:26 - 7:29and the number of kinds
of thylacines began to decline, -
7:29 - 7:30until by five million years ago,
-
7:31 - 7:32only one left.
-
7:32 - 7:35By 10,000 years ago,
they had disappeared from New Guinea, -
7:35 - 7:42and unfortunately, by 4,000 years ago,
somebodies, we don't know who this was, -
7:42 - 7:46introduced dingoes --
this is a very archaic kind of a dog -- -
7:46 - 7:47into Australia.
-
7:47 - 7:48And as you can see,
-
7:48 - 7:51dingoes are very similar
in their body form to thylacines. -
7:51 - 7:54That similarity meant
they probably competed. -
7:54 - 7:56They were eating the same kinds of foods.
-
7:56 - 8:01It's even possible that aborigines were
keeping some of these dingoes as pets, -
8:01 - 8:04and therefore they may have had
an advantage in the battle for survival. -
8:04 - 8:07All we know is, soon after
the dingoes were brought in, -
8:07 - 8:09thylacines were extinct
in the Australian mainland, -
8:09 - 8:12and after that they only
survived in Tasmania. -
8:13 - 8:15Then, unfortunately,
-
8:15 - 8:19the next sad part of the thylacine story
is that Europeans arrived in 1788, -
8:19 - 8:22and they brought with them
the things they valued, -
8:22 - 8:24and that included sheep.
-
8:24 - 8:27They took one look
at the thylacine in Tasmania, -
8:27 - 8:30and they thought, hang on,
this is not going to work. -
8:30 - 8:32That guy is going to eat all our sheep.
-
8:33 - 8:35That was not what happened, actually.
-
8:35 - 8:39Wild dogs did eat a few of the sheep,
but the thylacine got a bad rap. -
8:39 - 8:43But immediately, the government said,
that's it, let's get rid of them, -
8:43 - 8:46and they paid people
to slaughter every one that they saw. -
8:47 - 8:49By the early 1930s,
-
8:49 - 8:533,000 to 4,000 thylacines
had been murdered. -
8:53 - 8:56It was a disaster,
and they were about to hit the wall. -
8:57 - 9:00Have a look at this bit of film footage.
-
9:00 - 9:03It makes me very sad because,
while it's a fascinating animal, -
9:03 - 9:08and it's amazing to think
that we had the technology to film it -
9:08 - 9:12before it actually plunged off
that cliff of extinction, -
9:12 - 9:15we didn't, unfortunately,
at this same time, -
9:15 - 9:19have a molecule of concern
about the welfare for this species. -
9:19 - 9:23These are photos of the last
surviving thylacine, Benjamin, -
9:23 - 9:25who was in the Beaumaris Zoo in Hobart.
-
9:26 - 9:27To add insult to injury,
-
9:27 - 9:31having swept this species
nearly off the table, -
9:31 - 9:34this animal, when it died of neglect --
-
9:34 - 9:38The keepers didn't let it
into the hutch on a cold night in Hobart. -
9:38 - 9:42It died of exposure, and in the morning,
when they found the body of Benjamin, -
9:42 - 9:47they still cared so little for this animal
that they threw the body in the dump. -
9:49 - 9:51Does it have to stay this way?
-
9:52 - 9:54In 1990, I was in the Australian Museum.
-
9:54 - 9:56I was fascinated by thylacines.
-
9:56 - 9:58I've always been obsessed
with these animals. -
9:58 - 9:59And I was studying skulls,
-
9:59 - 10:03trying to figure out their relationships
to other sorts of animals, -
10:03 - 10:05and I saw this jar,
-
10:05 - 10:09and here, in the jar,
was a little girl thylacine pup, -
10:09 - 10:11perhaps six months old.
-
10:11 - 10:13The guy who had found it
and killed the mother -
10:13 - 10:16had pickled the pup,
and they pickled it in alcohol. -
10:16 - 10:20I'm a paleontologist, but I still knew
alcohol was a DNA preservative. -
10:20 - 10:24But this was 1990,
and I asked my geneticist friends, -
10:24 - 10:27couldn't we think
about going into this pup -
10:27 - 10:30and extracting DNA, if it's there,
-
10:30 - 10:32and then somewhere
down the line in the future, -
10:32 - 10:34we'll use this DNA
to bring the thylacine back? -
10:34 - 10:38The geneticists laughed.
But this was six years before Dolly. -
10:39 - 10:41Cloning was science fiction.
-
10:41 - 10:42It had not happened.
-
10:42 - 10:44But then suddenly cloning did happen.
-
10:44 - 10:47And I thought, when I became
director of the Australian Museum, -
10:47 - 10:49I'm going to give this a go.
-
10:49 - 10:50I put a team together.
-
10:50 - 10:53We went into that pup
to see what was in it, -
10:53 - 10:55and we did find thylacine DNA.
-
10:55 - 10:57It was a eureka moment.
We were very excited. -
10:58 - 11:01Unfortunately, we also found
a lot of human DNA. -
11:01 - 11:04Every old curator
who'd been in that museum -
11:04 - 11:06had seen this wonderful specimen,
-
11:06 - 11:09put their hand in the jar,
pulled it out and thought, -
11:09 - 11:11"Wow, look at that,"
plop, dropped it back in the jar, -
11:11 - 11:13contaminating this specimen.
-
11:13 - 11:14And that was a worry.
-
11:14 - 11:16If the goal here was to get the DNA out
-
11:16 - 11:20and use the DNA down the track
to try to bring a thylacine back, -
11:20 - 11:22what we didn't want happening
-
11:22 - 11:24when the information
was shoved into the machine -
11:24 - 11:26and the wheel turned around
and the lights flashed, -
11:26 - 11:30was to have a wizened old horrible curator
pop out the other end of the machine. -
11:30 - 11:34It would've kept the curator very happy,
but it wasn't going to keep us happy. -
11:34 - 11:37So we went back to these specimens
and we started digging around, -
11:37 - 11:40and particularly,
we looked into the teeth of skulls, -
11:40 - 11:43hard parts where humans
had not been able to get their fingers, -
11:44 - 11:45and we found much better quality DNA.
-
11:46 - 11:48We found nuclear mitochondrial genes.
-
11:48 - 11:50It's there. So we got it.
-
11:50 - 11:52OK. What could we do with this stuff?
-
11:52 - 11:54Well, George Church,
in his book, "Regenesis," -
11:54 - 11:57has mentioned many of the techniques
that are rapidly advancing -
11:57 - 11:59to work with fragmented DNA.
-
12:00 - 12:04We would hope that we'll be able
to get that DNA back into a viable form, -
12:04 - 12:07and then, much like we've done
with the Lazarus Project, -
12:07 - 12:10get that stuff into an egg
of a host species. -
12:10 - 12:12It has to be a different species.
What could it be? -
12:12 - 12:14Why couldn't it be a Tasmanian devil?
-
12:14 - 12:16They're related, distantly, to thylacines.
-
12:17 - 12:20And then the Tasmanian devil is going
to pop a thylacine out the south end. -
12:21 - 12:24Critics of this project say, hang on.
-
12:24 - 12:28Thylacine, Tasmanian devil?
That's going to hurt. -
12:28 - 12:31No, it's not. These are marsupials.
-
12:31 - 12:34They give birth to babies
that are the size of a jelly bean. -
12:34 - 12:37That Tasmanian devil's
not even going to know it gave birth. -
12:37 - 12:39It is, shortly, going to think
-
12:39 - 12:42it's got the ugliest
Tasmanian devil baby in the world, -
12:42 - 12:45so maybe it'll need some help
to keep it going. -
12:46 - 12:49Andrew Pask and his colleagues
have demonstrated -
12:49 - 12:51this might not be a waste of time.
-
12:51 - 12:53And it's sort of in the future,
we haven't got there yet, -
12:53 - 12:56but it's the kind of thing
we want to think about. -
12:56 - 12:58They took some of this same
pickled thylacine DNA -
12:58 - 13:02and they spliced it into a mouse genome,
-
13:02 - 13:03but they put a tag on it
-
13:03 - 13:07so that anything
that this thylacine DNA produced -
13:07 - 13:10would appear blue-green in the mouse baby.
-
13:10 - 13:14In other words, if thylacine tissues
were being produced by the thylacine DNA, -
13:14 - 13:16it would be able to be recognized.
-
13:16 - 13:20When the baby popped up,
it was filled with blue-green tissues. -
13:20 - 13:23And that tells us if we can get
that genome back together, -
13:23 - 13:24get it into a live cell,
-
13:24 - 13:27it's going to produce thylacine stuff.
-
13:27 - 13:29Is this a risk?
-
13:29 - 13:31You've taken the bits of one animal
-
13:31 - 13:34and you've mixed them into the cell
of a different kind of an animal. -
13:34 - 13:38Are we going to get a Frankenstein?
Some kind of weird hybrid chimera? -
13:38 - 13:40And the answer is no.
-
13:40 - 13:44If the only nuclear DNA that goes
into this hybrid cell is thylacine DNA, -
13:44 - 13:48that's the only thing that can pop out
the other end of the devil. -
13:49 - 13:52OK, if we can do this,
could we put it back? -
13:52 - 13:54This is a key question for everybody.
-
13:54 - 13:58Does it have to stay in a laboratory,
or could we put it back where it belongs? -
13:58 - 14:01Could we put it back in the throne
of the king of beasts in Tasmania, -
14:01 - 14:02restore that ecosystem?
-
14:03 - 14:06Or has Tasmania changed so much
that that's no longer possible? -
14:07 - 14:09I've been to Tasmania.
-
14:09 - 14:12I've been to many of the areas
where the thylacines were common. -
14:12 - 14:15I've even spoken to people,
like Peter Carter here, -
14:15 - 14:17who when I spoke to him, was 90 years old,
-
14:17 - 14:21but in 1926, this man
and his father and his brother -
14:21 - 14:22caught thylacines.
-
14:22 - 14:24They trapped them.
-
14:24 - 14:28And when I spoke to this man,
I was looking in his eyes and thinking, -
14:28 - 14:34"Behind those eyes is a brain that has
memories of what thylacines feel like, -
14:34 - 14:37what they smelled like,
what they sounded like." -
14:37 - 14:38He led them around on a rope.
-
14:38 - 14:40He has personal experiences
-
14:40 - 14:43that I would give my left leg
to have in my head. -
14:44 - 14:46We'd all love to have
this sort of thing happen. -
14:46 - 14:49Anyway, I asked Peter, by any chance,
-
14:49 - 14:51could he take us back
to where he caught those thylacines. -
14:51 - 14:54My interest was in whether
the environment had changed. -
14:54 - 14:58He thought hard. It was nearly 80 years
before this that he'd been at this hut. -
14:58 - 15:00At any rate, he led us
down this bush track, -
15:00 - 15:02and there, right where he remembered,
-
15:02 - 15:03was the hut,
-
15:03 - 15:06and tears came into his eyes.
-
15:06 - 15:08He looked at the hut. We went inside.
-
15:08 - 15:10There were the wooden boards
on the sides of the hut -
15:10 - 15:13where he and his father
and his brother had slept at night. -
15:13 - 15:16And he told me, as it all
was flooding back in memories. -
15:16 - 15:18He said, "I remember
the thylacines going around the hut -
15:18 - 15:20wondering what was inside,"
-
15:20 - 15:23and he said they made sounds
like "Yip! Yip! Yip!" -
15:23 - 15:26All of these are parts of his life
and what he remembers. -
15:26 - 15:30And the key question for me
was to ask Peter, has it changed? -
15:30 - 15:31And he said no.
-
15:31 - 15:33The southern beech forests
surrounded his hut -
15:33 - 15:36just like it was
when he was there in 1926. -
15:36 - 15:38The grasslands were sweeping away.
-
15:38 - 15:40That's classic thylacine habitat.
-
15:40 - 15:42And the animals in those areas
were the same that were there -
15:43 - 15:44when the thylacine was around.
-
15:44 - 15:46So could we put it back? Yes.
-
15:47 - 15:50Is that all we would do?
And this is an interesting question. -
15:50 - 15:53Sometimes you might
be able to put it back, -
15:53 - 15:56but is that the safest way
to make sure it never goes extinct again? -
15:56 - 15:57And I don't think so.
-
15:57 - 16:01I think gradually, as we see species
all around the world, -
16:01 - 16:04it's kind of a mantra that wildlife
is increasingly not safe in the wild. -
16:04 - 16:07We'd love to think it is,
but we know it isn't. -
16:07 - 16:09We need other parallel
strategies coming online. -
16:09 - 16:11And this one interests me.
-
16:11 - 16:13Some of the thylacines
that were being turned in to zoos, -
16:13 - 16:15sanctuaries, even at the museums,
-
16:15 - 16:17had collar marks on the neck.
-
16:18 - 16:19They were being kept as pets,
-
16:19 - 16:22and we know a lot
of bush tales and memories -
16:22 - 16:24of people who had them as pets,
-
16:24 - 16:26and they say they were
wonderful, friendly. -
16:26 - 16:27This particular one
-
16:27 - 16:30came in out of the forest to lick this boy
-
16:30 - 16:33and curled up around
the fireplace to go to sleep. -
16:33 - 16:34A wild animal.
-
16:34 - 16:39And I'd like to ask the question.
We need to think about this. -
16:39 - 16:44If it had not been illegal
to keep these thylacines as pets then, -
16:44 - 16:46would the thylacine be extinct now?
-
16:46 - 16:48And I'm positive it wouldn't.
-
16:48 - 16:51We need to think
about this in today's world. -
16:51 - 16:56Could it be that getting animals
close to us so that we value them, -
16:56 - 16:57maybe they won't go extinct?
-
16:57 - 17:00And this is such a critical issue for us
-
17:00 - 17:01because if we don't do that,
-
17:01 - 17:05we're going to watch more of these animals
plunge off the precipice. -
17:05 - 17:06As far as I'm concerned,
-
17:07 - 17:11this is why we're trying to do
these kinds of de-extinction projects. -
17:11 - 17:14We are trying to restore
that balance of nature -
17:14 - 17:15that we have upset.
-
17:16 - 17:17Thank you.
-
17:17 - 17:20(Applause)
- Title:
- How we'll resurrect the gastric brooding frog, the Tasmanian tiger
- Speaker:
- Michael Archer
- Description:
-
The gastric brooding frog lays its eggs just like any other frog -- then swallows them whole to incubate. That is, it did until it went extinct 30 years ago. Paleontologist Michael Archer makes a case to bring back the gastric brooding frog and the thylacine, commonly known as the Tasmanian tiger. (Filmed at TEDxDeExtinction.)
- Video Language:
- English
- Team:
- closed TED
- Project:
- TEDTalks
- Duration:
- 17:36
Krystian Aparta commented on English subtitles for How we'll resurrect the gastric brooding frog, the Tasmanian tiger | ||
Krystian Aparta edited English subtitles for How we'll resurrect the gastric brooding frog, the Tasmanian tiger | ||
Krystian Aparta edited English subtitles for How we'll resurrect the gastric brooding frog, the Tasmanian tiger | ||
Joanna Pietrulewicz edited English subtitles for How we'll resurrect the gastric brooding frog, the Tasmanian tiger | ||
Joanna Pietrulewicz edited English subtitles for How we'll resurrect the gastric brooding frog, the Tasmanian tiger | ||
Joanna Pietrulewicz edited English subtitles for How we'll resurrect the gastric brooding frog, the Tasmanian tiger | ||
Joanna Pietrulewicz edited English subtitles for How we'll resurrect the gastric brooding frog, the Tasmanian tiger | ||
Thu-Huong Ha edited English subtitles for How we'll resurrect the gastric brooding frog, the Tasmanian tiger |
Krystian Aparta
The English transcript was updated on 12/14/2015.