Lecture 10 - Argument Markers

Here what we want to focus on in
particular is the language of argument. We

need to understand the language of
argument in order to be able to spot an

argument. That is to determine when a
passage contains an argument and what part

of the passage is that argument. So, how
can we tell when an argument is being

given? Well recall the definition of an
argument as a series of sentences,

statements, or propositions, where some of
them are premises and one of them is a

conclusion, and the premises are intended
to give a reason for the conclusion. So

the real question of when an argument has
been given comes down to the question of

when certain sentences are intended as
reasons for other sentences. Now the

answer is that we can tell the person's
intentions when they're speaking by which

words they choose. So there's going to be
certain words that indicate that some

sentences are reasons for others. Just
compare these two sentences. I am tall and

I am good at sports. And compare that to,
I am tall, so I am good at sports. Now

notice that you can take the first
sentence, I am tall and I am good at

sports, and switch it around. I am good at
sports and I am tall. Switching doesn't

make any difference, but it's very
different if you say, I am tall, so I am

good at sports. That's very different
from, I am good at sports, so I am tall.

So we know from the fact that you can
switch around the and sentence, and you

cannot switch around the so sentence. The
word so introduces something very

different from just conjoining the two
claims. But then what's the difference?

Well, the difference is that when you use
the word, and, you're simply stating the

two facts. I am tall. I am good at sports,
and the and says that they're both true.

But when you use the word, so, you're
indicating that one of them is a reason

for the other. If you say, I am tall, so I
am good at sports, then you're suggesting

that the reason why you're good at sports
is that you're tall. But if you say, I'm

good at sports so. I am tall, then you're
indicating that the fact that you're good

at sports is some kind of evidence that
you must be tall. Maybe because you can

only be good at sports if you're tall,
which isn't true. That just shows it's a

bad argument, but it is an argument.
Because by using the word so, you're

indicating that one of the sentences is a
reason for the other. Of course, the word,

so, is not the only word that plays this
role in arguments, or has this function.

You can also say. I am tall, therefore I
am good at sports. Or I am tall, thus I am

good at sports. Or I am tall, hence I am
good at sports. Or I am tall, accordingly

I am good at sports. All of these
different pairs of sentences. Play the

same role. They indicate that there's an
argument there. Namely, the fact that I'm

tall is a reason for the conclusion that
I'm good at sports. So we're going to call

all of these words argument markers,
because they mark or indicate the presence

of an argument. Next we want to
distinguish two different kinds of arguing

markers. So far, we've looked at so, and
therefore, and thus, and accordingly. And

each of those indicates that the sentence
right after it is a conclusion. And the

other sentence in the pair is a premise.
So we're going to call these conclusion

markers because they indicate that the
sentence right after them is a conclusion.

But there are other argument markers that
also indicate arguments in the same way.

What they indicate is that the sentence
after them is a reason, or a premise, not

a conclusion. For example, I can say, I'm
good a sports because I am tall. Now the

word because indicates that the fact that
I'm tall is a reason for the conclusion

that I'm good at sports. It doesn't mean
that the sentence after the word because

is a conclusion. Instead, it means that
the sentence after the word because, is a

reason, or a premise. So we're going to
call it a reason maker, or a premise

marker. And there are other reason markers
as well. You could say, I am good at

sports, for I am tall. I am good at sports
as I am tall. I am good at sports f or the

reason that I am tall. I am good at sports
and the reason why is that I am tall.

There are lots of different ways to
indicate that the fact that I am tall is a

reason for the conclusion that I am good
at sports. All of these words, both the

conclusion markers and the reason markers
indicate that there is an argument

present. But only in some cases. You can't
just look at the word and figure out

whether it's an argument marker or not.
You have to think about the role that it's

playing. A perfect example of that is an
other reason marker. Since. You can say, I

am good at sports since I am tall. And
then it looks like you are presenting the

fact that you are tall as a reason why
you're good at sports. But the word since

doesn't always play that role. After all
you can say the Sun has been up since

seven o'clock this morning. And that
doesn't mean that somehow the sun has an

alarm clock that causes it to come up
right at seven o'clock. All it's saying is

that, the sun has been up after the time
of seven o'clock. And all times since

then. It doesn't indicate any kind of
rational relation, such as the fact that

it's seven o'clock being a reason why the
sun came up. Or what about this one? It's

been raining since my vacation began. Very
disappointing, but you're not saying that

it's raining because your vacation began,
as if there's some kind of plot against

you in the nature of weather, and that
would be very paranoid. All you're saying

is that, it has been raining every day
since the time when your vacation began,

or every day after your vacation began. So
the since there indicates just a temporal

relation, not some kind of rational
relation. And what this shows us is that

you can't just look for the word since and
always mark it as an argument marker. You

have to think about what the word since is
doing in that context. And that'll be true

for a lot of other reason markers and
conclusion markers as well. Here's another

example of the same point but with a
conclusion marker. The word so. The word

so sometimes indicates that the sentence
after it's a conclusion. And the sentence

before it's a reason. But it can also
indicate something entirely different. You

don't need to eat so much. So there
doesn't indicate that much is a reason for

anything. The word so is getting used in
an entirely different way, that should be

obvious. But the point again is that you
can't just look for the word so and label

it as an argument marker. You have to
think about the function that it's playing

in the particular context. Unfortunately
sometimes it's hard to tell whether a

particular word is being used as an
argument marker or not. Here's an example.

Suppose someone says, the liberal party
has been dropping in the polls since the

conservative party held their convention.
And they might be saying, the liberal

party has been dropping in the polls. And
all times after the conservative party

held their convention. But they might be
saying something stronger. They might be

saying that the liberal party has been
dropping in the polls because the

conservative party held their convention,
or because of something that happened at

that convention. How can you tell whether
this person means to be claiming simply a

temporal progression or some kind of
reason for the drop in the polls? One

trick, that's very useful, is to try to
substitute a different word. If their

claim means, pretty much, the same if they
had said, the liberal party has been

dropping in the polls because the
conservative party held it's convention,

then you're claiming there's a rational
relation. But if you can't substitute

because for since, then the word since is
not being used as an argument marker. Now

sometimes that's just going to be clear.
When it's not clear, what are you going to

do? We can ask the person who's talking.
You can say, well tell me, are you saying

that the Liberal Party has no following in
the polls because of the Conservative

Party convention, or are you just saying
that that's the time when they were

falling? They might be able to answer your
question. Of course they still might not,

because sometimes it's just not clear. You
simply have to try your best to figure out

what the person's saying, and if you can't
figure it out, it might of course just be

because they're not clear. After all, many
people speak very loosely. And then it's

hard for you to tell what they're saying.
They might not even know themselves

exactly what they're saying. But a good
test is whether you can substitute another

argument marker for the term that's
unclear. That won't solve all your

problems, but when you can substitute an
argument marker for a particular word,

that shows that, that word in this context
is being used to indicate that something

is a premise, that gives a reason for
something else which is the conclusion.

Namely, it shows that there's an argument
being given in that passage. The one last

word that we have to talk about is that
little word if. Sometimes it's linked with

the word then, in an if-then clause, which
is also called a conditional. We'll talk a

lot about conditions later in this course.
But for now I just want to make one point.

The word if might seem like an argument
marker because it's often used in

arguments. For example, I might say, if
I'm rich enough, I can buy a baseball

team. And I am rich enough, so I can buy a
baseball team. Now, that would be an

argument. But if all I say is if I'm rich
enough, I can buy a baseball team. When I

know I'm not rich enough, so I would never
assert the if clause that says I am rich

enough, then that little if sentence is
not being used to indicate an argument at

all. It's just saying, if I am rich enough
then I can buy a baseball team. It's not

saying that I am rich enough and it's not
saying that I can buy a baseball team. So

the word if by itself does not indicate an
argument. It sets a pattern for argument,

if one thing then another, or the one
thing therefore the other. But the if one

thing, then another, doesn't, by itself,
indicate any argument at all, because it

doesn't assert that if clause which is
also called the antecedent of the

conditional. So, we are not going to count
the word if as an argument marker. Now

we've learned how to identify an argument.
Pretty simple, huh? But just to make sure

you've got it straight, let's do a few
exercises.