-
Now that we understand validity, we can
use the notion of validity in
-
reconstructing arguments. Now, the point
of reconstructing an argument is to put it
-
in a shape that makes it easier for us to
assess the argument more accurately and
-
fairly for whether it's a good argument or
a bad argument. And when we do the
-
reconstruction, remember, you want to make
it as good an argument as possible because
-
you don't learn anything from putting down
your enemies by making them look silly,
-
right? If you want to learn from somebody
else's argument, you need to put it in the
-
best shape you can to make it look as good
as possible. So, that's going to be the
-
goal of reconstruction. And we are going
to accomplish that goal in a series of
-
stages. The first stage simply to do a
close analysis and we talked about that
-
last week. The second stage is to get down
to basics. That is to remove all the
-
excess words and focus on the premises and
conclusions that really make up the
-
argument and then put those into standard
form. The third stage is to clarify those
-
premises. They're not always going to be
as clear as you like and that's going to
-
take some work and it's going to include
breaking them into parts. And then, the
-
next stage is to take those parts and
organize them, to put them in order, so
-
you can see how the argument flows from
one part to another. But not all arguments
-
are complete so the next stage, we have to
fill in the gaps, that is supply
-
suppressed premises. And once we've done
that, then the final stage is going to be
-
assess the argument. If we are able to
come up with a sound reconstruction, we
-
know that the conclusion has to be true.
Because as we learned in the previous
-
lecture, the conclusion of sound arguments
is always true. But if we don't come up
-
with a sound reconstruction, then we've
got to decide, is it the fault of the
-
argument or is it our own fault because we
didn't come up with a sound reconstruction
-
when there really is one that we didn't
find. So, that's going to be something we
-
have to discuss. We're g oing to discuss
all of these stages over the next few
-
lectures. Now, the first stage of
reconstruction is to do a close analysis.
-
But we already learned how to do that,
that was easy. Boy, I hope the rest of
-
them are that easy. This lecture is mainly
going to be about the second stage, namely
-
getting down to basics. And what we want
to do is to pull out the explicit premise
-
and conclusion from all the other words
around it. And the first step is to remove
-
all the excess verbiage. You know, it
might seem very surprising but people
-
often repeat themselves, I'm sure you've
all run into it. I mean, you listen to
-
somebody give a, a talk and it takes them
fifty minutes to say what they could have
-
said easily in five minutes and one of the
reasons is that they say everything ten
-
times. You know, for instance, people
often say the same thing twice, they
-
repeat themselves. They say the same thing
over again and they restate the point in
-
different words and they utter sentences
that mean the same thing. And they say
-
something and then, you know, they say it
again and they make a claim twice or more.
-
They exert exactly what they just said and
they reformulate their claim in different
-
words that are equivalent. They say it
once and then, they say it again, you get
-
the idea. Now, here is a real example from
a US politician during a debate. I'm going
-
to be honest with people, we can't
eliminate this deficit. People have heard
-
that over and over again in four years, we
cannot do it, we're in too deep a hole.
-
Now, if you think about it, it's going to
be obvious that we cannot do it. Repeats,
-
we can't eliminate this deficit, cuz
that's what it's doing, it is eliminating
-
the deficit. But also, we're in too deep a
hole. Well, that's just a metaphorical way
-
of saying the same thing. Why is the hole
too deep? Because we can't get out of it.
-
What hole is it? It's the deficit hole.
So, to say we can't get out of this hole,
-
we're in too deep a hole. It's just
another way of saying we can't eliminate
-
the deficit. So, in these three lin es,
he's already repeated himself three times.
-
Now, why does this politician repeat
himself? It might be that he thinks people
-
will remember it better or one version
will make more sense than another. But he
-
might have a special reason cuz this was a
live debate and he had to give a 90-second
-
answer. So, he had to fill up the time.
Sometimes people repeat themselves just to
-
fill up the time or maybe to give himself
time to think cuz he didn't have a real
-
answer ready yet and repeating himself is
easy while he thinks about what he's
-
really going to say in the next few
sentences. Fine. But repeating it still
-
doesn't make the argument any better and
we want to get down to the basics of the
-
argument that is the parts of the argument
that really affect how good it is, so we
-
can cross out those repetitions that don't
make the argument any better. So first, we
-
can cross out we cannot do it. Then, we
can cross out, we're in too deep a hole.
-
We already saw that those are just
repeating the claim that we can't
-
eliminate the deficit. In addition, we can
cross out, I want to be honest with people
-
because that's not a reason to believe
we're in too deep a deficit. And next, we
-
can cross out that people have heard that
over and over again in four years. Well,
-
that might be seen as a reason to believe
that we're in a deficit because everybody
-
seems to say it, but let's assume that's
not part of his argument here and we'll
-
cross it out. Now, let's move on. A second
form of excess verbiage that is words that
-
don't contribute to the force of the
argument is what I like to call road
-
markers. A lot of times, people, you know,
good speakers, they tell you what topic
-
they are talking about and why they are
talking about it. Why it's important and
-
worth talking about. But to say why it's
an important issue and to say what issue
-
it is, doesn't provide any reason to
believe that what they say about the issue
-
is true or false. So, it doesn't
contribute to the argument. Here's an
-
example from the same politician in the
same debate as we j ust saw. This
-
politician said, now, I want to go back to
the whole issue of healthcare, because we
-
touched it, and I think the American
people deserve to know what we would do
-
different. And notice that he says, he's
going to talk about healthcare but he
-
doesn't say anything about healthcare. He
didn't tell you what he's going to say
-
about healthcare. All he says is he wants
to go back to that issue. And he tells you
-
why he wants to go back to that issue. But
he doesn't add any reason to believe that
-
what he's about to say about the issue is
true. Now, this can, of course, still be
-
useful because you might get confused
about what the issue is and he might be
-
changing the topic and he wants to signal
that he is changing the topic, and that
-
will help his listeners. But it still
doesn't add to the argument, it doesn't
-
give you any reason for the conclusion
that he's going to want to draw. We can
-
cross out these excess words. we can cross
out, now, I want to go back to the whole
-
issue of healthcare because that doesn't
show that his views on healthcare are
-
correct. And we can cross out because we
touched it. That's a reason why we're
-
going to that issue, but again, that
doesn't give any reason why his views are
-
correct. And we can even cross out, but I
think the American people deserve to know
-
what we would do different because the
fact that they deserve to know what you're
-
going to do doesn't show that what you're
going to do is the right thing to do. So,
-
none of these claims are really reasons
that are going to be reasons for the main
-
part of his argument, which is to support
the particular views on healthcare that
-
he's going to tell you about a few seconds
after this. The next type of excess
-
verbiage is tangents. People go off on
tangents all the time. Here's an example.
-
You know, you really ought to think about
taking a History course. I, I still
-
remember my History courses in college.
There was this one time when, there was a
-
dog that one of the students brought to
class and, and the dog like barked and
-
then he ran up on stage and he, he cut
under the professor and knocked the
-
professor on his rear-end. It was really
funny. So, you know, I think that History
-
is a good thing to study. Now, notice that
all this stuff about the dog has nothing
-
to do with History. It's no reason to take
a History course instead of a Philosophy
-
course or a Classics course or a Science
course. The same thing could happen in
-
those courses just as well. So, the
tangent plays a certain role. It makes it
-
interesting. It keeps your attention.
Maybe it makes it memorable for you, what
-
he said. But it doesn't actually provide a
reason why you ought to take a History
-
course. So, since those parts of the words
were just a tangent that don't provide any
-
reason we can cross them out, too, because
they are excess verbiage. But sometimes,
-
people go off on irrelevant tangents. Not
just by accident because they lose their
-
train of thought, but because they're
trying to fool you. They're trying to
-
produce what is called a red herring. The
name red hearing supposedly comes from
-
somebody who crossed the red herring over
the trail and then the hound couldn't
-
track its scent anymore. And that's
basically what's going on here. Sometimes,
-
people produce tangents that distracts you
from the main line of argument because
-
they know that there are weaknesses in
that line of argument and they don't want
-
you to notice them. That's what a red
herring is. And it's a type of tangent
-
that you have to learn to watch out for.
Because if you want to see the problems in
-
your opponent's arguments or even in your
friend's arguments, then you need to not
-
get distracted by tangents that are in
effect red herrings. Yet, another example
-
of excess verbiage is, well, examples.
Here's an example of that. A different
-
politician in the same debate said this.
Here's what happened. In the time that
-
they have been in office in the last four
years, 1.6 million private sector jobs
-
have been lost, 2.7 million manufacturing
jobs have been lost. And it's had real
-
consequences in places like Cle veland.
Cleveland is a wonderful distinguished
-
city. It's done a lot of great things, but
it has the highest poverty rate in the
-
country. One out of almost two children in
Cleveland are now living in poverty. Now,
-
notice that this politician is talking
about the unemployment rate in the rest of
-
the country, in the country as a whole.
So, why bring in Cleveland? Well, you
-
might be saying that Cleveland shows that
there's problems throughout the rest of
-
the country, but that can't be right
because Cleveland is just one example. And
-
it might be an outlier that doesn't
represent the general trends. So, what
-
he's doing with this example is he's
trying to bring it down the home, and make
-
you feel for the real effects. But he
doesn't come out and say that you can
-
generalize from Cleveland to the rest of
the country, or that everyone else is
-
suffering in exactly the same way. He's
just giving one example. And so, it
-
doesn't really support his general claim
that the unemployment is a problem
-
throughout the whole country. That means
that it's not an extra premise in the
-
argument and we can cross it out like
other forms of excess verbiage. Now, we've
-
seen that excess verbiage can take the
form of repetition or road markers or
-
tangents or examples. And people use these
a lot. Matter of fact, I like to think of
-
a general trick that people use called the
trick of excess verbiage. A lot of people
-
talk too much and they keep saying things
over and over again, go off on tangents,
-
and give more examples than they really
need. And all of that is a way of hiding
-
the problem with their position. It's a
trick to use too many words because the
-
real point gets lost in the middle of
those words. So, you can fool people by
-
throwing in those extra words. That's the
trick of excess verbiage but be careful.
-
What seems like excess verbiage that's
just there to trick you might really be an
-
essential part of the argument. So what
you need to do when you have a passage and
-
you're trying to get the argument out of
it, is to cross out all the exc ess words
-
but also look at what's left over. If
what's left over is enough premises and
-
conclusion to make a good argument, then
the stuff that you crossed out probably
-
really is excess. But if it turns out that
what's left over is not a very good
-
argument, to autocheck all those words you
crossed out and make sure they really
-
weren't necessary. Cuz you're not being
fair to the person that you're
-
interpreting if you crossed out something
that was an essential part of the
-
argument. And some cases are going to be
tricky. Its not going to be clear whether
-
or not to cross the noun. Some small words
that are tricky are guarding terms. Here
-
is an example. I think Miranda is at home
so we can meet her there. What's the
-
guarding word? You already found that out
when you did the close analysis, right? I
-
think. Now, one way to read this argument
is that the premises I think Miranda is at
-
home and the conclusion is we can meet her
there. But that's kind of weird because
-
the fact that you think she is at home is
not what makes it true that you can meet
-
her there, it's the fact that she is at
home that can make it the case that you
-
can meet her there. So, if the premise is
about what you think, and the conclusion
-
is about where she is and where you can
meet her, then the argument doesn't make
-
any sense. So, in this case, what we want
to do is to cross out the words I think,
-
because that's going to make the argument
silly and the argument really amounts to,
-
Miranda is at home, so we can meet her
there. And the I think covers that whole
-
thing. It's saying, I think she's at home,
so I think we can meet her there. But the
-
argument doesn't involve some premise
about what your thoughts are and contrast
-
this with a different argument. Miranda is
at home, so we can probably meet her
-
there. Now, there's another guarding term,
right? Probably. Can you get rid of that?
-
Well, then the argument becomes Miranda is
at home, so we can meet her there. But
-
that's clearly not what the speaker was
trying to say, if they included the word
-
probab ly.
They realized that the fact that she's at
-
home right now doesn't mean that we can
meet her there because it might take us
-
awhile to get there and she might leave
while we're on the way. So, it's not fair
-
to the person giving the argument. And it
makes the argument look worse to cross out
-
the word, probably. So, in that case, you
want to keep the guarding term in order to
-
properly represent the force of the
argument. So, it looks like sometimes, you
-
need to keep the guarding terms and
sometimes, you need to cross them out. And
-
there's not going to be any strict rule
that you can follow. You have to use your
-
sense of what's going to make the argument
as good as possible. What's going to fit
-
what the speaker was really trying to say.
Another tricky case is assuring terms.
-
Suppose I'm writing a letter of
recommendation and I say, he is clearly a
-
great worker. I know that. So, you ought
to hire him. The assuring terms are
-
clearly and I know that. But now, the
question is, is the argument really first
-
premise, he's clearly a great worker.
Second premise, I know that. Conclusion,
-
you ought to hire him. It's kind of weird.
Again, if you think about it, cuz you're
-
not hiring him because it's clear. If he's
a great worker but it's not clear that
-
he's a great worker, then you're still
ought to hire him because he is a great
-
worker. Or if he's a great worker and I
don't know he's a great worker, you still
-
ought to hire him cuz he's a great worker.
The fact that I know it is irrelevant to
-
whether you want to hire him cuz that's
about my mental states not his abilities.
-
So, that representation of the argument
doesn't really capture the force of
-
somebody who writes this letter of
recommendation. So, we can cross out the
-
words I know that and we can cross out
clearly, and then the argument is he's a
-
great worker so you ought to hire him. But
contrast this example. I am certain that
-
Jacob is cheating on his wife, so I ougt
to tell her. Now, you might think I am
-
certain that is just another assuring term
so we can cross it ou t.
-
And then, the real argument is Jacob is
cheating on his wife so I ought to tell
-
her. But now, think about that argument.
The mere fact that he's cheating on his
-
wife doesn't mean I ought to tell her if
I'm not certain cuz if I have some
-
suspicions or I'm just guessing, but I
really don't know, then I probably ought
-
not to tell Jacob's wife that, you know,
Jacob was cheating on her. So here, the
-
force of the argument, does seem to depend
on my certainty. If I'm not certain, I
-
shouldn't tell her. If I am certain, maybe
I should. So, we can't cross out the
-
assuring term in this case cuz that would
distort the argument. And, of course, some
-
people might disagree with that. They
might say, well, look, if you have some
-
reason but your not certain then you ought
to tell her and that could be
-
controversial. But we're talking here not
about what those people think but what the
-
speaker thinks, the person giving this
argument when this person said,"I'm I'm
-
certain that Jacob is cheating on his
wife." They seemed to indicate that to
-
them, the fact that they are certain
provides an even better reason why he
-
should tell Jacob's wife. So, if we want
to capture what the person giving the
-
argument intended in this case, we have to
leave them the assuring term. So, you're
-
seeing one example, where you ought to get
rid of the assuring terms. And another
-
example, where you ought to keep the
reassuring terms. And just like with
-
guarding terms the same point applies.
There is no mechanic rule that will apply
-
to every case. You have to think through
the argument and decide whether crossing
-
out those words and removing them distorts
the argument or instead, crossing them out
-
makes the argument look even better
because the point of removing excess
-
verbiage is to get rid of the things that
aren't necessary but keep everything that
-
is necessary to make the argument look as
good as it possibly can look. Finally,
-
once we've removed all the excess
verbiage, what's left over? The answer is
-
the explicit premises and conclusion in
the argume nt.
-
The point of removing the excess verbiage
was to separate those essential parts of
-
the argument, those basics of the argument
from all the stuff that's unnecessary. Of
-
course, we still have to decide which ones
are premises and which ones the
-
conclusion, right? And that's why the
close analysis helps because we indicated
-
which ones were reason markers and which
ones were conclusion markers and that lets
-
you to identify that these are the
premises and that's the conclusion. And so
-
now, we can do step three. We can put the
argument standard form. We put the
-
premises above the line and we put dot
pyramid, and then the conclusion below the
-
line. And we've got the argument in
standard form, which completes stage two
-
of the reconstruction project. At this
point, it's useful to look back at the
-
passage and see whether you've gotten rid
off all the excess included all of the
-
basics of the argument. So, you can look
at the passage and say, is everything
-
that's not crossed out in a premise or a
conclusion of the standard form. And if
-
there's something that's still there in
the passage that isn't used, you've got to
-
decide at that point is it really excess
or not. And, of course, if the argument
-
looks really bad, you've got to look back
and see whether it's missing something
-
that you had crossed out as being excess
verbiage when it really was an essential
-
part of the argument. So, we can use this
process of putting it into standard form
-
as a test of whether we've performed
properly the other step of getting rid of
-
excess verbiage. So, steps two and three
really work together in this stage two of
-
getting down to basics. That's what helps
us to use the different parts to see
-
whether we've done each of them properly.